A study was undertaken in Hamer and Benna-Tsemay districts of the Southern Ethiopia with the objective to determine the condition of the rangelands for grazing animals as influenced by altitude and grazing types. The rangelands in each of the study districts were stratified based on altitude and grazing types. In the study districts, a total of 32, 3, 2, 7 and 29 species of grasses, legumes, sedges, other herbaceous plants and woody species were identified, respectively. The common and/or dominant grass species in the enclosures was Cenchrus ciliaris while in the communal grazing areas they were Cynodon dactylon and Tetrapogon tennulis. In riverside grazing areas, the common and/or dominant grass species was Cynodon dactylon. The total grass biomass of communal, riverside and enclosure areas found in the different altitude categories of the study districts ranged from 398-503; 98-626, and 1,132 – 1,209 kg/ha, respectively. The common and/or dominant woody species in the communal grazing areas were highly palatable species of Acacia tortilis and Grewia bicolor and less palatable Solanum species. In riverside grazing areas, the common and/or dominant woody plants were species of Acacia tortilis, Grewia bicolor, and Solanum species while in the enclosures; Acacia brevispica and Acacia tortilis were found. The woody vegetation density per hectare of communal, riverside and enclosure areas in the different altitude categories of the study districts ranged from 2,501-3,021; 2251-3,021, and 201-700,wd/ha respectively which showed that the communal and riverside grazing areas were bush encroached. The range condition scores ranged from 17.87-20.38 (communal), 22-27 (riverside), 31.05-31.2 (enclosures) which were poor, fair and good condition classes, respectively. Similarly, with regard to the same variable the scored varied from 22-32.87, 19.73-31.43, 17.97-31.44 and 17.87-31.28% in altitudes >1550m, 1250-1550m, 900-1250m, and 550-900m, respectively. The result indicated the need for rangeland improvement measures in communal and riverside grazing areas, in order to attain sustainable livestock production from these areas. Establishment of community based enclosures was found to be one of the ways to improve the condition of the rangelands. The result indicated the need for rangeland improvement measures in communal and riverside grazing areas, in order to attain sustainable livestock production from these areas. Establishment of community based enclosures was found to be one of the ways to improve the condition of the rangelands

Grazing management and seasonality strongly influence the recovery potential of herbaceous vegetation in semi-arid rangelands of southern Ethiopia after history of heavy grazing. We investigated effects of management (enclosures versus grazed landscapes), age of enclosures and seasonality related to rainfall (i.e., independent variables) on herbaceous biomass, grass basal cover, herbaceous species abundance, species richness and diversity in a savanna rangeland of southern Ethiopia. We further assessed the relationship between the herbaceous biomass and species richness. Management significantly affected most of the herbaceous response variables (i.e., comparing enclosures and open grazed). Herbaceous biomass, grass basal cover, herbaceous species richness and diversity were greater in enclosures than in grazed areas. Rainfall was also influential on herbaceous biomass, grass basal cover, abundance of herbaceous species, herbaceous species richness and diversity. Herbaceous biomass, abundance and diversity did not however vary with the age of enclosures, while herbaceous species richness appeared to decrease as the age of enclosures advanced. Grass basal cover initially decreased and later on increased with the age of enclosures, so that the older enclosures disclosed improvement of grass basal cover.

Development programs recommend fattening of pigs aged between 1 and 2 years by supplementing their local diet with industrial cereal bran, to improve womens' income. At the best moment to start this activity, just after the rainy season, high demand for these pigs induced higher prices and low margins. The start after the rainy season does not fit in the existing production system as farmers sell their surplus pigs before and during the rainy season. Traditional pig fattening lasts 3 years. About 60 women in 8 villages tested early fattening of young piglets. Piglets of the treatment were supplemented with a special concentrate and showed higher daily weight gains compared to the traditionally fed group. The gross margin of the early fattening was equal to the recommended pig fattening, but the first solved problems related to availability of piglets and thus fits better in the existing production system. Almost half of the early fattened pigs were sold within a year. Most of the women appreciated the experiment positively and suggested positive margins can be attained by selecting suitable piglets and rigorously respecting feeding and management schemes. Criteria were developed for selecting the most suitable piglets with a simple tailor tape. A projection on 3 years shows that the gross margin of early fattening is higher compared to traditional fattening and that it facilitates the production of more meat against lower cost.

The objectives were to: (1) identify and quantify the effect of technological change on productivity, profitability, and competitiveness in different milk production systems and regions of the country; (2) analyze the relationship between productivity, technological change, profitability, and competitiveness; (3) analyze the evolution of milk production systems in Colombia; and (4) discuss the market concentration and its impact on the formation of milk price. Data came from a survey to 545 farms during the year 2000 in five regions: Caribbean and Piedmont in the lowlands, Coffee Growing, Antioquia, and the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie in the highlands. The survey was designed to quantify inputs and products in order to determine costs and prices at the farm level in order to calculate (a) variable costs for feed supplementation, labor, health, reproduction, fertilization, and irrigation; (b) gross income from the sale of milk and beef, and (c) to characterize farms according to productivity level and management practices. The statistical analysis of multiple correspondence and general linear models were used to explain the variability observed between productivity and profitability as a function of technological change. Independent of the production system or the region where farms were located, the increase in competitiveness was in direct relationship with herd size. Thus, as herd size increased, production costs per unit of milk and beef decreased, net incomes per cow increased, and the return to capital investment improved. However, when this increase in competitiveness was associated with increases in productivity, this trend was not observed, which suggested that highly productive farms were not necessarily competitive. The dual-purpose system was the most profitable one in the Piedmont, Caribbean, and Coffee growing regions while in Antioquia and in the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie the most profitable was the specialized dairy system. With regards to technological change, the adoption of improved pastures and the investment in pasture divisions for a more efficient rotation generated higher productivity and income in all regions and production systems, as well as increased competitiveness through a reduction in production costs per unit of milk and beef. The use of strategic feed supplementation to the basal diet of forage had mixed effects. The best economic response to this supplementation in lowland regions (i.e., Piedmont and Caribbean) was with low quantities (i.e., < 0.5 kg DM/cow/day) of feed supplements while in highland regions (i.e., Coffee Growing area, Antioquia and the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie) was with moderate quantities (i.e., between 0.5 and 2 kg DM/cow/day). The use of fertilization and irrigation increased productivity, but reduced net income and increased production costs, except in the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie. The practice of milking twice a day increased both productivity and profitability and reduced production costs, except in the Caribbeanregion. Farms that de-wormed milking cows with low frequency against internal and external parasites obtained higher incomes and lower production costs in comparison with farms that de-wormed cows with higher frequency although there were no differences in productivity. The amount of years of experience of farmers at producing milk was a key factor to increase profits, although not productivity. Farms located in sites where the commercial value of land was high (>US$6,000/ha) and near market centers had higher productivity that those with commercial value of land medium ($3,000 to $6,000/ha) and low (<$3,000/ha) but were less profitable in all regions. Box 1: Recommendations to researchers and extensionists Identify profitable technologies. Technologies that increase productivity are not necessarily profitable, which suggest the need to determine appropriate ways to evaluate them economically. This was the case of fertilization and irrigation. It is necessary to determine the best economic response to various levels of N2 and H2O to different species of improved grasses under various soil types and conditions. The most competitive and profitable breed group in the dual-purpose system was the crossbred with low (24% European-76% Zebu genes) and medium levels of dairy genes (55% European-45% Zebu genes) but had lower productivity than the purebred group (98% European genes). In the specialized dairy system, the purebred group was slightly more profitable, productive and competitive than the crossbred group with medium level of dairy genes, but this difference was not significant. The Colombian dairy sector has become more productive and competitive, but less profitable. Comparing the evolution of dairy farms with studies 12 years ago, milk production per hectare increased by 44% in dual-purpose herds and 14% in specialized dairies. This increase in productivity reduced the milk production cost by 16% and 10% in dual-purpose and specialized dairies, respectively, due to an increase in stocking rate by 15% and 17% in dual-purpose and specialized dairies as well as to an increase in investment in infrastructure and equipment by 258% and 37% in dual-purpose and specialized dairies, respectively. However, the net income per hectare during this period decreased by 27% and 69% in dual-purpose and specialized dairies due to a reduction in the producer's price of milk and beef of 22% and 20% in dual-purpose systems, and of 41% and 27% in specialized dairies. Nevertheless, this reduction in price to producers was never translated in lower prices to consumers, but remained in the hands of supermarkets and milk processing plants which expanded and modernized with long-life technology. Development agencies must internalize the fact that policies oriented to markets will be increasingly "oriented to supermarkets". If one adds that in Colombia exists 3 or 4 supermarket chains that control the food retail market, the conclusion is that sectoral policies will need to learn how to deal with a handful of giant companies. This in a huge challenge, and demands an urgent review of ideas and strategies. Box 2: Recommendations to decision makers Regionalize research. Due to the fact that the most profitable production systems are region-specific, Colombia should have different strategies for research and technology transfer in order to exploit more efficiently the comparative advantages of each region and production system. Promote collective action. It is necessary to promote cooperatives and associations to help small producers to adapt to new patterns with higher levels of competition. Otherwise, the new rules of the game could induce a massive exodus of producers in the short term and in a relatively brief period of time. It is possible, in the short run, to adopt technologies that increase milk productivity and reduce production costs while profits are reduced as a result of falling real prices as occurred in Colombia during the 90's. However, in the long run, this situation is simply unsustainable. The proposals and challenges presented in this case study have illustrated the problems and opportunities of the dairy sector in Colombia. However, these systems could represent similar situations in other countries of Latin America. Given the phenomenon of globalization and higher degree of efficiency that these systems are being exposed to, the issues of productivity, technological change, competitiveness, and markets, are critical and of enormous relevance for the performance and survival of the livestock sector in the next decades. Box 3: Recommendations to producers Without research there is no future. Efficiency goes hand in hand with technology and this depends on research and technology transfer. However, public funds allocated to agricultural research are being reduced. The challenge consists that producers in Colombia take greater control of livestock research by building alliances with local, regional and international organizations leaders in forage and livestock research. For this it is necessary that producers define and fund their own research agenda. Production-to-consumption participation. In the coming years, producers cannot limit themselves to participate only in the primary phase of production, but to expand their scope of action to other phases of the market chain to have a higher participation in the formation of milk prices and to capture a greater piece of the final price.

Haematological values of healthy Galla goats have been determined. These values have been found to differ from those reported by other authors in different breeds of goats from various countries. Those values found to be of highly significant difference (P

On-host behaviour of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus was studied in the field in Bungoma County in Kenya to evaluate the putative repellent effects of essential oils of Tagetes minuta and Tithonia diversifolia at its predilection feeding site. Oils of both plants caused a disruption of orientation, movement and attachment behaviour of ticks. More ticks dropped off in the treatments with the two essential oils than with the control. Treating the ear pinna with the essential oil of T. minuta caused the highest percentage of ticks to drop off the host body. No tick reached the ear pinna treated with the essential oil of T. minuta and up to 30% of ticks (from the forehead release site) reached the ear base. When the ear pinna was treated with the essential oil of T. diversifolia, one tick reached the ear pinna and up to 40% of ticks (from the dewlap release site) reached the ear base. The results show that T. minuta repels ticks more strongly than T. diversifolia. However, both essential oils offer possibilities for exploitation of potentially effective and environmentally acceptable tools for on-host tick control.

The study was undertaken in the Ejura-Sekyedumasi District of Ghana to investigate how household headship characteristics and labour availability relate with the household’s decision to keep and spend time on small ruminants. Key informants were interviewed prior to a census of all the 407 households in two villages, to collect demographic, crop, and livestock data, which was used in bivariate and logistic regression analyses. A subsequent time use study involved a stratified sample of 24 households, and the t- test was used to compare households. In general, female-headed households (FHH) were of lower socio-economic status, and had fewer adult household members and less livestock, compared to male-headed households (MHH). The final logistic regression model had a 77.1% success rate in predicting households keeping small ruminants, with socio-economic status and sex of the household head, presence of poultry and the number of active adults as significant predictors. Characteristics of FHH that kept small ruminants were not significantly different from their male counterparts, but the former spent less time feeding their animals. The odds of keeping small ruminants were ultimately 2.1 times higher for male-headed households. The low socio-economic status of most FHH with less labour availability is a disincentive for small ruminant rearing