Europe’s future wood demand for energy is expected to increase by 10 million to 200 million m3 in the period 2010- 2030. This will be supplied by both domestic sources (forests, industrial residues post-consumer wood waste), but also from sources outside Europe. The EU-28 predicts a near future (2020) gap between solid biomass supply and demand for renewable energy: 21.4 million tonnes of oil equivalents (MTOE). This is estimated via preliminary renewable energy action plans (NREAP’s) per country. The EU-28 expects wood pellet import will merely complete this gap of 21.4 MTOE, with more than 50 million tonnes of pellets. This implies a feedstock need of 125 million m3 of wood from forests and other sources outside the EU-28. A practical approach to include bioenergy in wood sector models should start with the input of wood pellets. Ideally, three types of bioenergy markets should be considered, in which pellets and the other major woody feedstock are included: 1. Large scale power production (the UK, Belgium, the Netherlands, all importing pellets from outside the EU-28); 2. Medium scale combined heat and power (CHP’s) including those in the forest sector (Nordic countries use pellets and chips for energy, merely imported from the EU-28); 3. Small scale residential heating (Germany, Austria and Italy, using wood pellets and logs from regional sources). We suggest starting with inclusion of medium scale CHP’s, followed by large scale power production. Small scale heating is relatively stable and should not have large impacts on future markets.

The paper covers spatial analysis of the Measure “Afforestation of agricultural and other than agricultural lands” implemented in Poland within the framework of the Rural Development Programme 2007 – 2013 (RDP 2007 – 2013). Beneficiaries obtained payments for afforestation based on the commitments made during the programming perspective of 2004 – 2006 or they joined the programme during the perspective of 2007 – 2013. Data obtained from the Department for Direct Payments of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development as of 31 December 2012 formed the base of the analysis. Payments made in the country to the beneficiaries considering their activity and absorption of funds within the framework of the measure are presented. Next, given the disbursements made in voivodships and counties of Poland, the activity of beneficiaries was indicated and average disbursements per beneficiary were determined. The analysis aims at investigating the consistency of the afforestation policy implemented in Poland as of 2004 and showing the role of afforestation projects implemented within the RDP framework. The aim of the article is to show spatial changes in the intensity and dynamics of agricultural land afforestation projects implemented within the framework of the RDP 2007 – 2013 considering natural conditions. The afforestation rate and the ownership structure of the forestland in Poland is diverse. Afforestation allows and rationally manages agricultural land, which is of little use for agricultural production. The utilization of EU funds supporting afforestation of agricultural land in Poland is characterized by spatial variability.

This brief review of the recent birch studies is focused on different aspects, such as species distribution, growing conditions, species identification, changes due to environmental factors. All mentioned investigations were carried out in Lithuania. This analytical study summarises the results and increases knowledge dissemination to the international audience. When reviewed and summarized considerable part of relevant literature sources, we realised new problems and challenges; for example, aiming to clarify the peculiarities of the growth and crown condition of the dominant birch species (Betula pendula Roth. and B. pubescens Ehrh.) under the changing climate and anthropogenic pollution.

Climate in Latvia has been changing in last decades, and it is predicted to continue changing; therefore, it is important for forestry sector to understand how these climatic changes might affect tree growth and survival. In order to assess climate suitability effect on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) provenances in Latvia, height and survival data from a Scots pine provenance trial located in three geographically distant places in Latvia were analysed together with several climatic indices. Provenances in the corresponding trial originated from Latvia, Poland, Germany, Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. Thirty year average climate data values from 1961 – 1990 for the 64 origins of provenances were acquired from the WorldClim project. Correlation analysis between provenance average values for height and survival and climate index values for the origins of the provenances confirm that there is a relation between these amounts, and the relation differs between the three site locations, indicating that suitability of climate is an important factor affecting the results of provenance trials. Cluster analysis confirmed that provenances from distant origins might have a very similar growth and survival rates; therefore, geographical location of the provenance origins cannot be considered as the only influential factor on these rates and the results from provenance trials have to be analysed together with climate data in order to make conclusions about the suitability of the provenances.

Pine, spruce and birch stem’s quality is different in regions of Latvia, but the differences are not included in the tables and models of assortment outcome. Therefore, it is not possible to predict accurately the outcome of round wood assortments. The aim of the research was to evaluate the regional differences of final felling sawlog outcome for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and birch (Betula spp.) in Latvia and to set the regions with a different sawlog outcome. Data from 1645 final felling areas was used for pine, 1202 for spruce and 1531 for birch from the years 2010 – 2012. Firstly, the sawlog outcome of 97 territorial units was set by using the data of the final felling areas sawlog outcome of pine, spruce and birch. Secondly, territorial units with a similar sawlog outcome were consolidated in regions. The smallest regional difference of sawlog outcome was found for spruce (9.4%), slightly larger for pine (10.5%) and the largest difference for birch (16.2%). Three regions with the different sawlog outcome were found for Scot pine, six for Norway spruce and seven for birch. Several spruces and birch regions have similar sawlog outcome but those do not have borders. They are between regions with higher or lower sawlog outcome. Sawlog outcome of neighbouring regions differ for at least 4 – 5%.

The aim of the study is to ascertain how different compositions of stand species affect the work of the harvester in commercial thinning under Latvia’s conditions. The data of the harvester – time-tracking files (*.drf) have been used as a basis for the study, where productivity is expressed as the prepared amount of round timber in cubic meters in a unit of time – an hour (m**3 hE-1). The data were collected from 100 commercial thinning areas which were divided into three types depending on the composition of the species: pure pine stands, pure spruce stands and deciduous tree mixed stands (mixed with coniferous trees). All the data for the study were collected in the forests managed by JSC ‘Latvia`s State Forests’. By summarizing the data, it has been established that in pure pine stands the average volume of the stem to be removed is 0.092 m**3, in mixed stands – 0.085 m**3 and in pure spruce stands - 0.068 m**3. The research demonstrates that the harvester showed its highest productivity while working in pure pine stands – 3.96 m**3 hE-1, the second best result was achieved in the mixed stands – 3.67 m**3 hE-1, but the lowest rate was demonstrated in pure spruce stands – 3.09 m**3 hE-1. Significant differences were observed in the productivity of the harvester between pure pine and pure spruce stands. Comparing the calculations of standard deviations in the harvester productivity, it can be seen that they are the biggest in mixed stands, while the lowest rate is demonstrated in pure spruce stands.

Thermal wood modification has been intensively studied in the recent decades because of the possibility to produce wood with improved biodurability and dimensional stability without use of harmful chemicals. Beside altered physical characteristics, wood colour is changed to lighter or darker brown as a result of thermal treatment. Growth of interest in thermal wood treatment has stimulated numerous researches concerned with discoloration of thermally modified wood which is subjected to light exposure. The objective of this study was to evaluate the colour stability of thermally modified hardwood during storage in the dark where wood discolouration is not photoinduced but rather a result of oxidative ageing. Three thermally modified hardwood species – aspen (Populus tremula L.), alder (Alnus incana Moench), birch (Betula pendula Roth.), where investigated. Wood discoloration was monitored by spectrophotometrical measurements of reflectance spectra and chromaticity parameter calculations using CIELAB colour system where L* is the lightness, and a* and b* are the chromatic coordinates. The colour stability of thermally modified wood as well as of untreated wood of the same species was examined by means of assessment of the colour parameter changes (ΔL*, Δa*, Δb*, ΔEab). All wood specimens under study discoloured during the experiment, but the colour change did not exceed two units that are common and accepted for wood products. Untreated and thermally modified wood showed different trends of discoloration during storage in the dark. The final colour changes that were fixed at the end of the experiment were greater for the thermally treated wood.

Heavy metals as well as other pollutants are widespread and create deleterious impact to the environment and human health. There are different in situ and ex situ technologies of immobilization and removal of contaminants; electrokinetic remediation is one of such technologies. It can be applied for treatment of wide areas, e.g., former industrial and military firing-grounds. Technology is applicable to water soluble contaminants at sites with homogeneous soils that are fine-grained and exhibit both, high permeability and high moisture contents. The aim of the study was to test the efficiency of electrokinetic remediation for copper contaminated clayey soil in laboratory conditions. Pilot scale experiments were applied to test the efficiency of electrokinetic removal of contaminants from soil by application of low voltage direct current (DC). Experimental results show that the use of DC power can be selected for treatment of heavy metal contaminated soils. Batch scale experiments were done by using clayey soil with known physico-mechanical properties, spiked with copper solution of known concentrations. Electric force was changed by varying its parameters. The article gives batch experimental results for diffusion of copper ions in soil under the influence of the external electric field.

Cumulative air pollution – synergy between different pollutants and environmental factors is one of the hardest to evaluate factors in the air quality monitoring field. The evaluation of cumulative effects is hindered by a lack of verified analytical frameworks. Currently used methods are relatively simple and use statistical models with small fixed number of pollutants in association with different factors. There is almost no one solution for direct, on-site cumulative effect measurements. The alternative is the use of Cumulative Pollution Index (CPI) method – solution designed for cumulative effect calculation from bioindication and air quality measurement data. However, this method is completely new and has never been used in the air pollution evaluation activities. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the opportunity to use CPI method as a cumulative pollution evaluation tool in air quality monitoring by doing measurements of cumulative effect in several air quality measurement stations in two cities of Latvia – Liepaja and Riga. Results show that Cumulative Pollution Index method is not only usable in air quality monitoring as a tool for cumulative effect evaluation, but can reveal new facts about air pollution and ways how it affects human and ecosystem health, – such climatic and environmental factors as humidity and temperature are more important than interactions between individual pollutants and can be considered main elements in forming of cumulative pollution impact.

Rural areas in Poland are characterized by great diversity in their functional spatial structure. Throughout history, their distinct features have been shaped by natural, historical and socio-economic factors. The aim of this study was to analyze the changes in the functional spatial structure of North-Eastern Poland. The analysis involved a comparison of data for 1988 and 2012. Research data was supplied mainly by the Central Statistical Office in Poland. The key drivers of change in the investigated region are agriculture, tourism, forestry and environmentally-friendly industrial processes. The results of the economic and social development are constantly changing in rural areas. Based on analysis, the functional structure of rural areas in North-Eastern Poland between 1988 and 2012 shows that they are more diversified. Over the years, rural areas in North-Eastern Poland were identified with agriculture but now they have multifunctional character.