Agriculture is a cornerstone of the economy, providing livelihoods for a significant portion of population. However, climate change significantly affects people, their lifestyles, and the ecosystems posing a critical challenge to the global community, particularly the underprivileged in developing nations. Recognizing the indispensable role of agriculture and the challenges posed by a changing climate, this paper emphasizes the paramount need for proactive adaptation strategies. Central to these strategies is the pivotal concept of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA), a multifaceted approach that encompasses a range of practices, including agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and the adoption of climate-resilient crop varieties. Delving deeper, the paper navigates through the farmer's perceptions, unraveling their understanding of climate change, and the complex barriers like social barriers, institutional limitations, financial barriers, and limited awareness that impede effective adaptation, and illuminates the instrumental roles that governmental bodies and institutions, and extension agents play in shaping and fostering climate-resilient practices. Collaboration between local communities, governments, and non-governmental organizations is essential to ensure the successful implementation of sustainable adaptation strategies. Embracing sustainable and forward-thinking approaches, particularly CSA, including agroforestry, conservation agriculture, water management techniques, climate-resilient crop varieties, ICT, and climate-smart pest management, the agricultural sector gains the potential to bolster its resilience against climate-induced disruptions, ensuring consistent agricultural output that contributes significantly to broader food security initiatives.

Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is a global strategy for enhancing food productivity amidst climate change uncertainties in the 21st century. CSA improves farmers’ incomes, reduces greenhouse emissions, and farming systems become resilient to climate change. Despite the vital role that CSA plays in the development of the agricultural industry and the economy, the extent to which CSA is related to sustainable agriculture (SA) is not well documented. Is CSA the same as SA? If they are the same, do CSA practices impose mitigation requirements for developing countries like Uganda? Studies or research on CSA and SA unfortunately have certain shortcomings. Lack of this knowledge makes it difficult to plan investments and develop policies that will increase farmers’ resilience to climate change and variability to improve SA. This study is aimed at assessing how CSA links to SA and whether the two contribute to climate change mitigation requirements. It was found that CSA and SA are also related in a way that the latter leads to lowering greenhouse gas emissions hence mitigating climate change. CSA and SA share a common principal goal of achieving food security. It was concluded that developing countries are the worst affected by the negative impacts of climate change and don’t have the adaptive capacity to respond to climate change effects.

Basin-based water management strategy is one of the necessary instruments for the protection and sustainable use of water resources against climate change. In this paper, the monthly precipitation distributions of the 25 major basins in Türkiye were produced, and amounts and volumes were computed and analyzed. Only annual modeling and assessments of precipitation may hide months with precipitation shortages. Empirical Bayesian Kriging (EBK), Ordinary Kriging (OK), and Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) were implemented in interpolation. EBK outperformed in all months and calculations were based on the EBK. The month with the highest precipitation potential in Türkiye is December (77.9 mm, 60.77 billion m3), and the month with the lowest precipitation potential is August (13.8 mm, 10.76 billion m3). In the basins, the monthly precipitation amounts range between 2.7 mm and 185.2 mm, and the volumes range between 0.02 billion m3 and 13.24 billion m3. The basins with the highest precipitation depth were determined as the East Black Sea, Antalya, Asi, and Ceyhan, and the lowest as the Small Menderes, Konya, and Tigris-Euphrates in different months. The monthly precipitation patterns and potentials of the basins vary widely. In May, June, July, August, and September, when water, particularly agricultural irrigation, is required the most, the 20 basins, except for the 5 located in Northern Türkiye precipitation shortage was determined.

Frost events are of particular importance for plants. Its occurrence determines growing season. Early or late frost events may cause injuries and damage in plants which have not yet entered dormancy in fall/winter, and for plants in flowering period in winter/spring. Global average temperature increase has been accompanied by changes in extreme temperature events. Observations have shown that there has been a decreasing pattern in frequencies and intensities of frost events. In this sense, it is aimed in this study to analyse probabilities of frost occurrences within the latest 30-year climatic normal period, from the cold period of 1991-1992 to that of 2020-2021, at five locations (Aydın, Kuşadası, Nazilli, Söke ve Sultanhisar) in the province Aydın, western Türkiye. Six frost indices were selected, and three temperature thresholds to define frost were considered when daily minimum temperature (TMIN) being equal to or less than 0.0, -1.2 or -2.3°C.The selected frost indices are first fall frost (FFF), last spring frost (LSF), frost period (FP), number of frost days (NFD), dates of frost occurrences (DFO) and consecutive frost days (CFD). The results revealed that Nazilli and Sultanhisar are characterized by the highest probabilities of frost in terms of frequency, intensity and duration, along with the earliest occurrence of first fall frost and latest occurrences of last spring frost, and with longest duration of frost period. On the other hand, Kuşadası and Söke have opposite characteristics in comparison to Nazilli an Sultanhisar. Aydın lies in between them. The results are expected to provide information to schedule the agricultural activities, and to avoid detrimental impacts of frost events.

It is foreseen that there may be a water crisis in the next years due to global climate change, the need for food with the increasing population and the need for fresh water. Due to the scarcity of freshwater resources and the difficulty in access to quality water, water resources should be used in the most efficient way. Water conservation is of great importance in regions where water is scarce. The water harvesting method, which allows rainwater to be collected, stored and reused could be applied in various ways. In this study, water harvesting methods and techniques aiming to develop a strategy that will provide maximum benefit from rainwater in arid and semi-arid areas are discussed.

Plants need to accumalate heat to complete a particular or whole growth period. This accumalation depends on temperature thresholds above or below which plant growth ceases, and on air temperature. It can be speculated that more heat accumulation is available for plants due to rapid warming within three or four decades. This study presents more recent heat accumulation for plants, quantified using a useful index called growing degree day (GDD), for five locations (Söke, Kuşadası, Aydın, Sultanhisar and Nazilli) in Aydın, Türkiye, during the latest climatic normal period from 1991 to 2020. GDD values were calculated both in monthly basis from March through October, and in daily basis from March 1st to October 31st. Monthly GDD averages, as expected, showed a pattern that increased from March to July or August, then decreased thereafter till October. Range and standart deviation showed approximately an opposite pattern, suggesting higher uncertainity in relatively colder months. The results are expected to provide farmers or agricultural practitioners with the latest averages of GDD to predict plant growth and development.

Climate change has become one of the most important threats to worldwide agricultural production systems. This paper evaluates how Bangladesh, a prominent developing country in the low-lying Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta, is susceptible to climate change and assesses present agricultural practices that target sustaining production under these threats. The study synthesizes the ongoing research findings of climatic change tendency, involving the rising of temperature, alteration of precipitation pattern, along with the onward frequency of extreme weather incidence and their complication to crop production. It discusses the key susceptibilities of Bangladesh’s crop sector, such as a shortage of irrigation water, the impact of rising temperatures, increasing sea levels and the loss of biodiversity. Moreover, the study explores the resilience strategies and measures adopted by farmers, policymakers and researchers to alleviate the hostile effect of climate change on crop production. With all these considerations, the paper aimed to analyse the current climate change trend, adverse effects to agricultural sectors and existing resilience practices in Bangladesh as well as future strategies against climate change.

This review investigates the effects of heat and drought stress on future food security of Turkish agriculture. Temperature average is expected to rise to 3.2°C at the end of the current century while annual precipitation will decline more than 10% in the west and south and rise by 20% in the north of Türkiye, implying that climate change will affect ecosystem sustainability. It is therefore crucial to develop strategies to mitigate and adapt to climate change such as adjusting the planting schedule, reduced tillage, fertiliser microdosing, pre-sowing seed treatment, and the application of growth promoting bacteria to improve tolerance to stress by comprehending how plants respond physiologically and biochemically under these stress conditions. Long-term heat stress may hinder photosynthetic electron transport, decreasing the plant's ability to make use of energy for photosynthesis. The immediate response of plants under drought stress involves closing stomatal openings to reduce water loss through stomatal conductance. Combined heat and drought stress have a greater adverse effect on plant development and production than their effects in isolation. Plant phenotyping can play a major role in “climate-proofing” Turkish agriculture through the identification and development of crop varities with improved prouctivity, climate resilience and input requirements. Digital agriculture will also improve the efficiency of Turkish agricultural systems as the adapt to a hotter drier climate. To ensure future food security and the viability of the agro-economic system in Türkiye steps must be taken to make Turkish agriculture more robust in preparation for the impacts of climate change.

Changes in the landscape become extremely destructive and many heritage values and resources are irreversibly lost. The speed, frequency and magnitude of these changes in the landscape increased in the second half of the 20th century, especially with the impact of human activities. Remote sensing is the most widely used method for determining the change in the landscape. In the research, MNDWI, NDVI and NDMI techniques, which are frequently applied in remote sensing, were used in order to determine the landscape change in Salt Lake. Thus, the changes in the built area, water surface and land cover between the years 2000-2020 in Salt Lake were determined. According to the MNDWI and NDMI Analysis results, a decrease was observed in the water surface width and moisture content in Salt Lake between 2000 and 2020. In the steppe areas south of Salt Lake, the increase in tree cover due to the change in land use type was determined by NDVI analysis. Therefore, it is possible to say that there is an increase in the amount of moisture in these areas. In addition, it was determined that the increase in agricultural activities in the region caused a change in land use types and the amount of green space in the region changed at this rate. With the mentioned methods, negative changes in the landscape as a result of human activities on the landscape can be determined practically. Thus, it will be possible to predict the negative consequences of climate change and take precautions.

Drought is one of the most harmful abiotic stresses affecting the development and yield of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). The current climate change and the resulting increased drought will worsen the negative impact of water stress on the plant. The powder of orange peel and cauliflower waste were added as soil supplementation at rates of 7 and 15 g/pot to pots of Phaseolus vulgaris L. under different drought conditions. The growth and physiological analysis were estimated after flowering period of common bean. In the pots where drought will be applied, irrigation was stopped for 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 days during the flowering period and irrigation was performed again after water stress application. To measure moisture percentage of pots, first dry pots were weighed and after irrigation, their moisture variation in terms of percent was measured during stress from 2 to 10 days. The highest plant height was obtained from control. Leaf area decreased significantly despite the application of different powder, especially after 4 days of drought conditions. The highest root fresh and dry weight, raw ash were observed under control with the application of 7.5 g orange peel powder. Shoot dry weight decreased as the number of days exposed to drought increased, and the application of 15 g orange peel and cauliflower powder gave the highest results compared to control conditions. The highest dry matter was obtained from the application of 7.5 g and 15 cauliflower powder in the absence of drought. It has been revealed that as the duration of exposure to drought increases, the value decreases and plant powders are effective in increasing this value. Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll values decreased significantly with drought, and the highest value was obtained from control conditions, followed by 15 cauliflower powder applications.