This first background paper from the CGIAR Water for Food Program seeks to identify research needs to increase crop water productivity, such that food security can be ensured and farmers’ livelihoods enhanced without increasing water diverted for agriculture.The paper proposes a number of priority topics for research on crop water management in the challenge Program on Water and Food, which will be amended during the development of the Program. These studies are grouped into four categories of research issues: effective development of genotypes to accelerate improvement of crop water productivitynew opportunities and technologies for integrated crop and natural resources management at field and farm levelopportunities for enhancing water productivity at regional and agro-ecological systemsinstitutional arrangements at the farming-systems level, which promote farmers’ adoption of technologies that enhance water productivityThe paper concludes that whilst there are challenges to be met at each of the levels considered there are hopeful signs that the goals of the program are achievable.

This paper highlights the difficult choices that must be made as mounting pressure from the world’s growing population for more food could lead to greater water consumption and increasing environmental degradation. Globally, agriculture uses between 70 to 90% of developed water supplies and the livelihoods of 70% of the world’s poor depend largely on farming. Despite the benefits, large-scale irrigation systems have led to pollution in rivers and the drying up of wetlands: at least 30% of the world’s river flows need to be used to maintain the condition of freshwater ecosystems worldwide.The paper argues that there is less water available for the competing demands for water (water to feed people, water to reduce poverty and water to sustain natural ecosystems) because of increasing water demands by cities and industries. It identifies a number of ways of resolving this dilemma: <B>Improved water productivity:</B> this might be achieved through improved crop varieties, combined with better tillage methods and more precise drip or micro irrigation. Drought resistant seeds, water harvesting schemes and small plot technologies such as manually operated treadle pumps have the potential to boost yields by 100% in many areas of sub- Saharan Africa where most farmers depend on rain fed agriculture. An improvement of water productivity by 40% over the next twenty five years would be reduce the global need for extra water for irrigation to zero. <B>Influencing peoples’ diets:</B> Western diets based on meat from grain fed cattle account for as much as 5,000 liters per capita per day while vegetarian diets deplete less than half as much water. With prevailing land and water management practices, a balanced diet requires 3287 liters of water per day compared to the 50 used for an average household’s domestic needs. <B>Increasing the trade of ‘virtual water’: </B>this trade in food from water abundant countries to water scarce ones is another option to be considered, but it is questionable whether low income countries will be able to afford ‘virtual water’ and there may be negative consequences for poor farmers. <B>Increasing the use of urban wastewater for irrigation: </B> up to one-tenth of the world’s population eats food produced using wastewater from towns and cities. Using wastewater and saline water for irrigation may improve the quality of water available for ecosystems in basins where there is still some outflow<B>Reforming agricultural policy: </B> agricultural subsidies in the west are a major factor in keeping prices low for agricultural producers in developing countries. However, decisions on diet and trade tend not to factor in water issues directly. While diet transitions in developing countries increase water demands, and some farm practices can be changed, influencing people's diets may not be a practical means of addressing water scarcity across the world. Global trade flows similarly resist influence, as economic and political motivations tend to override environmental ones.Of these options, increasing water productivity and the upgrading of rain-fed systems have the most potential to improve food security and reduce poverty at the lowest environmental cost. The paper finds that gains from increased irrigation efficiency are a lot less than imagined.This draft version of the report was prepared for a World Water Week 2004 event held in Stockholm

Agriculture is the largest human use of water. Clearly, agricultural practices need to be targeted to reduce wastage of water. This has been the centre of attention for water saving practices for some years. But there are additional ways to save water. Food consumers and businesses have a key role. This paper discusses the current problems of food demand and water scarcity and outlines some possible solutions to these issues. <br /><br />The amount of food produced on farmers&rsquo; fields is much more than is necessary for a healthy, productive and active life for the global population. Losses and wastage may be in the order of 50 percent between field and fork. Inefficient harvesting, transport, storage and packaging make a considerable dent in the potential availability of food. The situation now is characterised by rapidly increasing prices on food with dramatic repercussions for the poor, rates of inflation and, generally, for the stability of society.<br /><br />The authors recommend a range of actions. These include: <br /> support to farmers - actions are needed to support farmers, especially small farmers, to curb losses of water and food and to facilitate that their produce meets the growing demands for food through: improved seeds, harvesting technologies and storage and innovative ways to capture and beneficially use the rain water to lessen stresses on rivers and groundwater<br /> improve food processing and supply - the business community should take action to minimize water wastage through reducing food wastage in their processing and transport by: benchmarking standards to indicate water use; taking action to minimize wastage in their processing and transport systems; and raising publicity about their water use<br /> sensitise consumers - raise awareness amongst consumers about the water implications of their diets, overeating and food wastage through incentives, practical guidance and well designed campaigns<br /> disseminate basic data and information &ndash; there is a lack factual information about different types, size and implications of losses and wastage of food. An important step is therefore to improve knowledge.

Rainfed farming needs to be supported by appropriate water harvesting technologies to mitigate the moisture stress during critical crop growth stages during the main season and to increase opportunities for irrigated horticultural production. With this aim, a wider scale of water harvesting technology dissemination program was carried out in some areas of Ethiopia since 2002/03. This research was conducted with the aim of evaluating the implementation of the program and its impacts thus far, and to identify the major technical and socio-economic constraints to the wider utilization of on-farm level household ponds. Detailed analysis of the case of model farmers show that acceptable economic returns are possible from pond technologies given that farmers are able to follow appropriate cropping patterns and irrigation techniques to improve water use efficiency. It is recommended that the technologies should be disseminated in the region in a more farmer participatory approach.

This document presents the key findings of the evaluation of an integrated agricultural production and water management project implemented by IFAD in Netrakona district, in northern Bangladesh. The aim of this eight-year project was to boost the incomes and food security of small farm households and arrest their decline into marginalisation and landlessness.Outcomes of the project include: sustainable changes have been brought about by the projectimpact surveys show that 85% of respondents now use the skills and knowledge they received from training and will continue to do sobetween 1995 and 2000 the amount of land used to grow vegetables increased by 186% from 2,750 to 8,950 hectaresnew training and community centres facilitate communication on marketing issues or availability of social servicesimplementation was not participatory: greater expertise in participatory development and group mobilisation is needed in future projects of this kindthe potential for livestock development should be given higher priority and where NGOs are involved in government projects more effective coordination between the two is vital.Key insights from the evaluation include:lack of credit for small farmers is a constraint to agricultural development and needs strengtheningparticipation is the key to people-centred development yet it was understood differently by various partners. Greater expertise and knowledge of participatory development and social mobilisation during the planning stages would ensure that sound concepts and implementation strategies are adopted from the outsetstronger project design such as the flexibility to modify project activities during implementation, if necessary, would ensure greater impact.[adapted from author]

Water scarcity is a critical issue for food production in the poor developing countries because agriculture is the primary consumer of the dwindling freshwater around the globe. This paper calls for strategies for the sustainable use of water in agriculture. Most food in the world is produced using soil moisture from precipitation - known as &ldquo;green&rdquo; water. Irrigation is the source of &ldquo;blue&rdquo; water. <br /><br />This paper analyses alternative water futures using a combined green and blue water accounting framework embedded within the water simulation components of IFPRI&rsquo;s International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT). It uses a series of scenario results to 2050 for the Limpopo and Nile River Basins, which are representative of the wide range of irrigation and rainfed agricultural conditions.<br /><br />The paper presents the following policy recommendations:<br /> an accounting framework that distinguishes between green and blue water should be included in projections to enable enhanced analysis of alternative policies for improving agricultural production in the face of growing water scarcity. to identify policy options an examination of the relative contribution of precipitation to total water consumption and that by irrigated areas can be useful. alternative investments in agricultural productivity and irrigation expansion, can lead to major water savings from both irrigation and precipitation. In the Limpopo Basin, growing water scarcity suggests the need for investment in technologies aimed at enhancing irrigated and rainfed crop yields while in the Nile Basin, the focus needs to be on expanding irrigated areas and improving rainfed crop productivity. many existing technologies should be embedded into the support and extension systems to enable new research and development addressing rainfed crop water use to benefit the rural poor in developing countries. an integrated approach for the development of strategies aimed at helping humanity adapt to climate change and increased climate variability should be adopted. The authors conclude that an approach that combines blue- and green-targeted water management strategies with other complementary rural agricultural development investments, has the potential to positively impact the lives of many poor people.

The report highlights key facts, conditions and trends regarding water internationally. It explores water's relationship to sustainable food production and consumption patterns. It also highlights key water-food-nutrition-environment-livelihood trends, provides response options, and illustrates important policy directions.Five key issues for policy debate are identified within the report: increasing water productivity in both rain fed and irrigated areas will require a combination of agronomic, economic and social interventions facilitating the diffusion and use of new technologies for increasing water productivity will depend on providing incentives to producers, further research and making technological development socially acceptable identifying and influencing unsustainable consumption patterns will need to account for the complex mix of social forces that influence food preferences the protection of aquatic ecosystems against water depletion implies an urgent need for the identification of minimum ecological service criteria identifying unsustainable agricultural subsidies and trade barriers will help to establish the degree to which free trade can help to solve regional food deficiency problems Highlighting the links between production, nutrition, ecology and poverty, the report illustrates how production patterns, consumption patterns and consumer preferences have synergistic relationships and must therefore be contended with concurrently. It emphasises the need for a fundamental change in the thinking about water use so that: its impact on agricultural productivity can be increased water use for food, nutrition and livelihood security can be promoted consumption patterns that support sustainable production can be promoted water can be co-managed to meet both agricultural and ecosystem demands a strong poverty focus can be developed through the promotion of low-cost technologies and management The report identifies two basic challenges in meeting these aims. First, a better understanding of the relationship between managed "environmental flows" and ecosystem health must be grasped. Second, creating the institutional mechanism to incorporate these environmental flows into management regimes should be implemented.This working document was produced by the Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) for a side event organised by the Swedish Government at the 12th Session of the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD), New York, April 2004.

The 2012 GHI report focuses particularly on the issue of how to ensure sustainable food security under conditions of water, land, and energy stress. Demographic changes, rising incomes and associated consumption patterns, and climate change, alongside persistent poverty and inadequate policies and institutions, are all placing serious pressure on natural resources.In this report, IFPRI describes the evidence on land, water, and energy scarcity in developing countries and offers two visions of a future global food system - an unsustainable scenario in which current trends in resource use continue, and a sustainable scenario in which access to food, modern energy, and clean water improves significantly and ecosystem degradation is halted or reversed. Concern Worldwide and Welthungerhilfe provide on-the-ground perspectives on the issues of land tenure and title as well as the impacts of scarce land, water, and energy on poor people in Sierra Leone and Tanzania.

The original mandate of the UN Special Representative on Business and Human Rights said that he should „develop materials and methodologies for undertaking human rights impact assessments.‟ Since then, tools for human rights impact assessment (HRIA) have developed by different actors. This article reviews two such tools, both of which are up for revision in 2010. One is by the International Finance Corporation, International Business Leaders Forum and Global Compact, the other by the Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels. The article finds that substantive human rights and human rights principles are well understood by the former, while the latter seems to have an inadequate understanding of crucial human rights principles, such as non-discrimination, but the latter has some procedural strengths as compared to the former.