In this review paper we focus on the dilemma of whether or not current fresh water supply will meet the demand/needs of agricultural crops despite the continuing impact of water scarcity. In addition, we evaluate whether an increase in future population, change in water demand and supply patterns, due to climate change, will allow sustainable food production. With increased scarcity of freshwater, new water conservation technologies and biotechnology were developed, as well as newly developed water sources such as recycled wastewater, and various water institutions, which may help ease water scarcity. With new advancements in farming practices and crop innovations global food supply is still challenged by climate change effects on both water and land resources used for food production.

Food processing is among the greatest water‐consuming industries with a significant role in the implementation of sustainable development goals. Water‐consuming industries such as food processing have become a threat to limited freshwater resources, and numerous attempts are being carried out in order to develop and apply novel approaches for water management in these industries. Studies have shown the positive impact of the new methods of process integration (e.g., water pinch, mathematical optimization, etc.) in maximizing water reuse and recycle. Applying these methods in food processing industries not only significantly supported water consumption minimization but also contributed to environmental protection by reducing wastewater generation. The methods can also increase the productivity of these industries and direct them to sustainable production. This interconnection led to a new subcategory in nexus studies known as water‐food‐environment nexus. The nexus assures sustainable food production with minimum freshwater consumption and minimizes the environmental destructions caused by untreated wastewater discharge. The aim of this study was to provide a thorough review of water‐food‐environment nexus application in food processing industries and explore the nexus from different aspects. The current study explored the process of food industries in different sectors regarding water consumption and wastewater generation, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The most recent wastewater treatment methods carried out in different food processing sectors were also reviewed. This review provided a comprehensive literature for choosing the optimum scenario of water and wastewater management in food processing industries.

Climate change and population growth are contributing to a growing global freshwater crisis that is exacerbating agricultural water scarcity and compromising food security and public health. In light of these challenges, the increased reliance on nontraditional irrigation water sources, such as reclaimed or recycled water, is emerging as a potentially viable strategy to address water and food insecurity worldwide. This editorial provides an overview of the global need for agricultural water reuse and outlines the environmental and public health impacts associated with this practice. Policy implications, including an emphasis on “One Water” approaches, are discussed. Finally, the editorial leads off a Special Issue that includes a collection of articles reporting on the initial research and extension/outreach findings of CONSERVE: A Center of Excellence at the Nexus of Sustainable Water Reuse, Food and Health, funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Institute of Food and Agriculture. Taken together, this compilation of articles addresses the overarching theme that transdisciplinary teams are key with regard to moving the science of agricultural water reuse forward to achieve water and food security and advance public health in a changing climate.

Reuse of water in the food industry is attracting much attention due to the increasing cost of water and water discharge. A major obstacle for extensive reuse is the associated risk of microbiological contamination of food and the production environment. A hazard analysis critical control point based generic model has, therefore, been elaborated for implementation and evaluation of systems for the reuse of water in the food industry. The model includes information on food and water borne pathogens and their sensitivity towards various water treatment methods. Previous implementation of the pre-requisite programs and combination of knowledge from very different research areas are also required for safe implementation of water reuse in the food industry.

Reclaimed water has been identified as a viable and cost-effective solution to water shortages impacting agricultural production. However, lack of consumer acceptance for foods irrigated with reclaimed and treated water remains one of the greatest hurdles for widespread farm-level adoption. Using survey data from 760 participants in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S., this paper examines consumer preferences for six sources of reclaimed irrigation water and identifies statistically significant relationships between consumers’ demographic characteristics and their preferences for each type of reclaimed water. Key findings suggest that adult consumers prefer rain water to all other sources of reclaimed water. Women are less likely than men to prefer reclaimed irrigation water sources and are particularly concerned about the use of black and brackish water. Consumers who had heard about reclaimed water before are more likely to accept its use. Drawing on evidence from survey and experimental research, this paper also identifies disgust, neophobia and safety concerns as the key issues that lead consumers to accept or reject foods produced with reclaimed water. Finally, we identify avenues for future research into public acceptance of reclaimed water based on our analysis and evidence from prior research.

This work presents a proposal for the recovery of water through the treatment of food industry wastewater using membrane processes. Three wastewater streams from the different manufacturing steps were identified as possible sources of water recovery: (1) wastewater from the washing of ionic exchange resins and (2) wastewater from the concentration stage of animal proteins (type 1 and 2). The wastewater streams were treated as effluent mixtures; each one with different level of pollution. The principal characteristics of the effluent mixtures were identified as high conductivity and the presence of organic matter. Under these conditions, ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis were carried out for the treatment of wastewater. The ultrafiltration process was tested at an industrial-level plant and the reverse osmosis process was applied at a pilot-plant level. The results showed the feasibility of the proposed treatment for water recovery. The data demonstrates an efficiency greater than 95% in all the quality parameters and therefore, a high quality in the recovered water was obtained by membrane processes. According to the chemical composition of wastewater, the reversible fouling was linked to salts and protein retention, promoting the formation of a cake layer as reversible resistance; whereas, irreversible fouling was minimum during wastewater treatment.

Water is a major input in food, from primary production through all stages in the food value chain to consumption. The safest option in food production might be the use of water only of potable or drinking water quality; however, this is often not a feasible, practical or responsible solution and water of different quality could be fit for some purposes, provided it does not compromise the safety of the final product for the consumer. When used alone, numbers of E. coli present in water are not an appropriate measure of water safety. Instead, an assessment of the fitness-for-purpose and the microbiological criteria of water required to maintain product safety should be risk-based. Decision trees and matrices were developed to assist stakeholders in making decisions on the water’s fitness in fresh produce productions, fishery products and water reuse scenarios. Communication tools, including education and training and programmes to encourage behaviour change, are essential for effective risk management of water use in food chains.

This paper presents results from a field experiment designed to evaluate whether food processing alleviates consumers’ concerns about crops grown with recycled water. Recycled water has emerged as a potentially safe and cost-effective way to replace or supplement traditional irrigation water. However, adoption of recycled water by U.S. agricultural producers has been modest, in part, because of concerns that consumers will be reluctant to accept their products. Our results suggest that simple processing of foods such as drying or liquefying can relieve some of consumers’ concerns about use of recycled irrigation water. While consumers of processed foods are indifferent between irrigation with recycled and conventional water, they are less willing to pay for fresh foods irrigated with recycled water relative to conventional water. We also found that consumers would experience a welfare gain from a labeling policy communicating the use of recycled irrigation water on both processed and fresh foods. Our analysis further reveals that informational nudges that provide consumers with messages about benefits, risks, and both the benefits and risks of using recycled water have no statistically significant effect on consumers’ willingness to pay for fresh and processed foods irrigated with recycled water relative to a no-information control group.

Water pinch analysis and mathematical optimization are two approaches that can be used in an industrial unit to achieve the minimum water consumption and wastewater generation flowrates. The fundaments of these approaches are based on water reuse. In this study, water pinch analysis and mathematical optimization studies are conducted in a corn refinery to achieve minimum targets. COD and TDS were separately considered as single limiting contaminants in water pinch analysis and water network of a corn refinery plant was modified. Water consumption in the studied corn refinery decreased from 1800 m3/day to 1235 m3/day if COD was taken into account and to 1152 m3/day if TDS was. The same results are achieved for single contaminant in mathematical optimization as well. The single contaminant approaches in the most cases are useless due to process limitations in water reuse. Therefore, mathematical optimization with multi-contaminants approach is conducted to design a reasonable water distribution network. Simultaneous consideration of COD and TDS in a multi-contaminants optimization resulted in 30% decrease in water consumption and required freshwater was reduced to 1260 m3/day.