The increasing pressure from the world’s population on limited natural resources has reached an urgent level. The global demand for water, food, and energy is unsustainable, and poses a threat to human health, political stability, and environmental well-being. The poor in developing countries are most vulnerable to the negative effects of the exploitation of constrained resources, and the segregation of development programs by sector means that policy interventions do little to help. Currently, development policies are created in isolation from one another, within their own sectoral realms, and inter-sector coordination is rare. Policy interventions that affect more than one sector are key to holistic, sustainable development, but because they face an ownership issue, not falling under any one sector’s jurisdiction, they often go unaddressed. The alternative to the status quo is the use of a nexus perspective, which emphasizes the interconnectedness of sectors and seeks to implement policy interventions with the best net outcomes. Policy makers are encouraged to adopt “systems thinking”, to resist over-focused investments and interventions, and to seek regulatory cooperation. The body of nexus literature is growing mainly with the establishment of theoretical frameworks and macroeconomic studies that model outcomes of nexus interventions. This thesis contributes to the pool of nexus literature with microeconomic studies that are evaluated from the perspective of the food-energy-water (FEW) nexus. Microeconomic analysis is valuable to the nexus perspective not only because it informs macroeconomic models, but also because it provides empirical evidence of nexus forces at work. The subjects of the three studies contained in this thesis are smallholder farmers in Dedza, Malawi. The first study investigates the farmers’ willingness to invest in communally-owned irrigation schemes and the household socioeconomic characteristics that determine that willingness. The study is intended to inform Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) programs, to help smooth the process of the transfer of irrigation scheme ownership from the government to local stakeholders. The promotion of IMT programs is considered a FEW nexus intervention because irrigation affects not only the water sector, but also the energy and food sectors. The second study in this thesis elicits smallholder farmers’ preferences for a conditional cash transfer (CCT) over a fertilizer subsidy coupon, with the intent of presenting policy makers with an alternative to Malawi’s Farm Input Subsidy Program (FISP). The narrow focus of the FISP, combined with its astronomical budget and disputed impact, indicate that it is time for an alternative, nexus-oriented intervention. The conditionality of a CCT means it can be targeted directly at certain sectors, and because beneficiaries are free to spend the cash as they choose, the impact will be spread over all three sectors. The third study in this thesis explores smallholder farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for improved cookstoves (ICS) and the socioeconomic characteristics that determine their WTP, to assist ICS promoting programs with pricing and targeting. Widespread sustained ICS adoption and the resulting fuel savings would directly affect the food and energy sectors, and indirectly affect the water sector. The high morbidity rates caused by reliance on biomass fuels for cooking would decline with sustained ICS adoption and proper use, resulting in human health improvements that would affect all three nodes of the nexus. There would be further indirect effects on all three sectors resulting from advancements in gender equality and climate change mitigation. While the findings of these studies have interesting implications for the FEW nexus, the interventions in question should be applied in an economy-wide model to determine the nexus effects. Such coordination of micro- and macroeconomic research, coupled with the inter-sector perspective, characterize the nexus approach and the future of development policy. | Der zunehmende Bevölkerungsdruck auf begrenzte natürliche Ressourcen hat ein kritisches Niveau erreicht. Der globale Bedarf an Wasser, Nahrungsmitteln und Energie ist nicht nachhaltig und stellt eine Bedrohung für die menschliche Gesundheit, die politische Stabilität und die Umwelt dar. Arme in Entwicklungsländern sind am stärksten von negativen Auswirkungen der Ausbeutung von begrenzten Ressourcen betroffen. Die Trennung von Entwicklungsprogrammen nach Sektoren führt dazu, dass politische Interventionen wenig zur Lösung dieses Problems beitragen. Derzeit werden entwicklungspolitische Maßnahmen isoliert voneinander, innerhalb ihrer eigenen Sektoren geschaffen, und es gibt wenig Koordination zwischen den Sektoren. Sektorübergreifende politische Maßnahmen sind unablässig für eine ganzheitliche, nachhaltige Entwicklung, doch weil sie nicht unter die Zuständigkeit eines einzelnen Sektors fallen und Verantwortlichkeiten nicht klar sind, werden sie oft nicht durchgeführt. Die Alternative zum Status Quo ist die Verwendung einer Nexus-Perspektive, die die Vernetzung von Sektoren unterstreicht und politische Interventionen mit den besten Nettowirkungen umsetzt. Politische Entscheidungsträger werden dazu aufgefordert "systemisch“ zu denken, thematisch zu sehr fokussierten Investitionen und Interventionen zu widerstehen und regulatorische Zusammenarbeit zu suchen. Die Literatur zum Nexus wächst vor allem mit der Etablierung von theoretischen Bezugsrahmen sowie makroökonomische Studien, die Ergebnisse von Nexus-Interventionen modellieren. Die vorliegende Arbeit leistet einen Beitrag zur Nexus-Literatur mit mikroökonomischen Studien, die aus der Perspektive des Nexus Nahrung-Energie-Wasser (FEW) ausgewertet werden. Eine mikroökonomische Analyse ist für die Nexusperspektive nicht nur deshalb wertvoll, weil sie Daten für makroökonomische Modelle, sondern auch, weil sie empirische Beweise für Nexus-Kräfte liefert. Gegenstand der drei Studien in der vorliegenden Arbeit sind Kleinbauern in Dedza, Malawi. Die erste Studie untersucht die Bereitschaft der Landwirte, in gemeinschaftlich genutzte Bewässerungsprogramme zu investieren sowie die sozioökonomischen Charakteristiken der Haushalte, die diese Bereitschaft bestimmen. Die Studie soll den Prozess der Übertragung von Projektverantwortung für das Bewässerungsmanagement-Transferprogramm (IMT) von der Regierung zu lokalen Stakeholdern erleichtern. Die Förderung von IMT-Programmen gilt als FEW-Nexus-Intervention, da Bewässerung nicht nur den Wasser-, sondern auch den Energie- und Nahrungsmittelsektor betrifft. Während Bewässerung in der Landwirtschaft den Wassersektor negativ beeinflussen und das Wasserkraftpotenzial im Energiesektor verringern kann, kann mit einer weiteren Übernahme von Bewässerung gerechnet werden, die Erträge und somit Ernährungssicherheit verbessert. Die zweite Studie in dieser Arbeit untersucht die Präferenzen von Kleinbauern für ein Geldtransferprogramm (CCT) sowie Düngergutscheinen. Ziel dieser Studie ist es, politischen Entscheidungsträgern in Malawi eine Alternative zum Düngersubventionsprogramm (FISP) zu präsentieren. Der enge Fokus des FISP, das beträchtliche Budget und umstrittene Auswirkungen deuten auf die Notwendigkeit einer alternativen, nexusorientierten Intervention hin. Die Konditionalität eines CCT bedeutet, dass es direkt auf bestimmte Sektoren ausgerichtet werden kann und weil die Begünstigten frei entscheiden, wofür sie das Geld ausgeben, werden die Auswirkungen auf alle Sektoren verteilt. Die dritte Studie untersucht die Zahlungsbereitschaft(WTP) von Kleinbauern für verbesserte Kochherde (ICS) und die sozioökonomischen Merkmale, die die WTP bestimmen, mit dem Ziel, die Förderung von ICS-Programmen mit Preisgestaltung und Targeting zu unterstützen. Eine nachhaltige Verbreitung von verbesserten Kochherden und die daraus resultierenden Treibstoffeinsparungen würden Nahrungsmittel- und Energiesektor direkt und den Wassersektor indirekt beeinflussen. Die hohen Morbiditätsraten, die durch die Abhängigkeit von Biomasse zum Kochen verursacht werden, würden mit anhaltender ICS-Übernahme und korrektem Gebrauch sinken, was zu Verbesserungen der menschlichen Gesundheit führt, die alle drei Nexusknoten betreffen. Es gibt weitere indirekte Auswirkungen auf alle drei Sektoren, die sich aus Fortschritten bei der Gleichstellung der Geschlechter und dem Klimaschutz ergeben. Während die Ergebnisse dieser Untersuchungen interessante Implikationen für den FEW-Nexus haben, sollten die betreffenden Interventionen in einem gesamtwirtschaftlichen Modell angewendet werden, um die Nexus-Effekte zu bestimmen. Diese Koordination mikro- und makroökonomischer Forschung gepaart mit einer sektorübergreifenden Perspektive kennzeichnet den Nexusansatz sowie die Zukunft von Entwicklungspolitik.

In most publications concerning edible W/O/W-emulsions, the low-HLB emulsifier polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) is used to stabilize the W/O-interface in combination with a high-HLB emulsifier which stabilizes the O/W-interface. Therefore, PGPR was used as the reference low-HLB emulsifier and compared to two alternative low-HLB emulsifiers namely ammonium phosphatide (AMP) and low-HLB sucrose ester O-170. As high-HLB emulsifiers both random coil (sodium caseinate) and globular proteins (whey protein isolate) were used. Hereby, the use of WPI led to similar, high enclosed water volume fractions for all used low-HLB emulsifiers whereas the use of Na-Caseinate led to almost no enclosed water in the emulsions containing ammonium phosphatide. Finally, the influence of osmotic pressure gradients on the release of an enclosed compound was examined. Therefore, the W/O/W-emulsions were diluted in iso-, hypo- and hypertonic solutions after which the release of an enclosed marker compound was followed over time. Hereby, AMP- and O-170 stabilized W/O/W-emulsions released the enclosed marker due to swelling under hypotonic dilution whereas hyper- and isotonic dilution never led to release of the enclosed marker, regardless of the used low-HLB emulsifier.

Raised-bed plasticulture, an intensive production system used around the world for growing high-value crops (e.g., fresh market vegetables), faces a water-food nexus that is actually a food-water-energy-land-economic nexus. Plasticulture represents a multibillion dollar facet of the United States crop production value annually and must become more efficient to be able to produce more on less land, reduce water demands, decrease impacts on surrounding environments, and be economically-competitive. Taller and narrower futuristic beds were designed with the goal of making plasticulture more sustainable by reducing input requirements and associated wastes (e.g., water, nutrients, pesticides, costs, plastics, energy), facilitating usage of modern technologies (e.g., drip-based fumigation), improving adaptability to a changing climate (e.g., flood protection), and increasing yield per unit area.Compact low-input beds were analyzed against conventional beds for the plasticulture production of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), an economically-important crop, using a systems approach involving field measurements, vadose-zone modeling (HYDRUS), and production analysis. Three compact bed geometries, 61cm (width)× 25cm (height), 45cm× 30cm, 41cm× 30cm, were designed and evaluated against a conventional 76cm× 20cm bed. A two-season field study was conducted for tomato in the ecologically-sensitive and productive Everglades region of Florida. Compact beds did not statistically impact yield and were found to reduce: 1) production costs by $150–$450/ha; 2) leaching losses by up to 5% (1cm/ha water, 0.33kg/ha total nitrogen, 0.05kg/ha total phosphorus); 3) fumigant by up to 47% (48kg/ha); 4) plasticulture's carbon footprint by up to 10% (1711kg CO2-eq/ha) and plastic waste stream by up to 13% (27kg/ha); 5) flood risks and disease pressure by increasing field's soil water storage capacity by up to 33% (≈1cm); and 6) field runoff by 0.48–1.40cm (51–76%) based on HYDRUS model simulations of 10-year, 2-h storm events in other major tomato production regions of California and Virginia.Re-designing the bed geometries in plasticulture production systems to be more compact is an example of win-win production optimization not only for traditional farms in rural areas but also for urban and peri-urban farms which are located closer to city centers. Compact beds could enable more plants per unit area, thus requiring less land area for the same production. Needing less area facilitates urban and peri-urban farming where land values can be high. Urban and peri-urban farming has several benefits, including reductions in transportation energy as production is closer to market and the ability for city wastewater to be reused for irrigation instead of freshwater withdrawals. Compact beds allow plasticulture to have smaller water, chemical, energy, carbon, waste, and economic footprints without impacting production. Improving agricultural systems in this way could enhance economic and environmental viability, which is essential for a sustainable food-water-energy-land-economic nexus.

The introduction of drug residues into the food chain and their presence in drinking water has been recently investigated. The aim of this work was to monitor the presence of 19 active drugs in water samples collected from milking parlors of dairy farms located in Galicia (northwest Spain), one of the main Spanish milking areas. Overall, 65% of the samples tested positive for at least one of the compounds analyzed. A total of 12 drugs were measured, with concentrations ranging between 17 and 3,941 ng/L. Considering that a mixture of compounds may contribute to the overall effect of each compound and might increase or reduce its toxicity, it should be noted that 29% of the samples tested contained more than one pharmaceutical. To date, the effects of the continuous consumption of these mixtures of drugs in water or milk are unknown; however, antimicrobials may affect the human gut microbiota or have toxic effects in sensitive individuals.

Water is considered the bloodstream of the biosphere, but its management is one of the most important challenges for human development. In view of the sustainable water management, several approaches have been proposed: Integrated Water Resources Management, Adaptive Management and, more recently, Water–Energy–Food (WEF) Nexus. Considering these approaches, over the last few decades, extensive efforts have been made to develop assessment methods and tools framed within the paradigm of sustainable development. As part of a holistic assessment of water resources, the recent approach based upon the WEF Nexus narrows down the consideration of intersectoral linkages to three dimensions that are of prominent interest, in particular in developing countries. This study presents a comprehensive indicator-based approach for the assessment of water, energy and food securities, with reference to the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations. The main ambition of the proposed approach is to provide a tool to monitor progresses, compare different geographical areas, highlight synergies and conflicts amongst and within the three dimensions of the WEF Nexus, and provide support for improved—more effective—management strategies to meet the goals. The proposed approach is demonstrated in the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM) River Basin in Asia and to the Po River Basin in Europe. The comparative analysis suggests that WEF security is currently rather low in the GBM basin compared to the other case study and other parts of the world and allows the identification of which dimensions (indicators) require special attention on the part of local and global policy makers.

Due to the harmful effects of veterinary antibiotics (VAs) residues in food on children's health, urine samples from 31 preschool and primary school children were analyzed for 13 common VAs. Samples of raw and cooked pork, chicken, fish, milk and drinking water from the children's living areas were also analyzed for residual VAs. Urinalysis revealed one to four target antibiotics in 77.4% of the sample group, with concentrations as high as 0.36ng/mL. Norfloxacin and penicillin had the highest detection rates (48.4% and 35.5%, respectively), with median concentrations of 0.037 and 0.13ng/mL, respectively. The VA burden of children in HK was lower than that in Shanghai. Enrofloxacin, penicillin, and erythromycin were the most detected VAs in raw and cooked food. Only oxytetracycline was detected in terminal tap water, and none were detected in milk. Tetracycline and doxycycline hyclate were detected in organic eggs (up to 7.1ng/g) and regular eggs (up to 6.6ng/g), which were common in children's diets. Traditional Chinese cooking processes did not completely eliminate VAs, and the concentrations of some VAs increased, especially after frying and roasting. The estimated daily intake (EDI) results show that the contribution of dietary intake and that based on the urine concentrations of VAs were far below the acceptable daily intake (ADI). The EDIs from urine were significantly lower than those based on cooked foods. The highest level of achievement percentage (LAP) based on dietary consumption and urine concentrations were 39.7% and 1.79%, respectively, and thus current levels of exposure to VAs would not seem to pose a risk to children's health. However, harmful effects of residual VAs during developmental periods may occur with exposure to much lower doses than those considered harmful to adults, and further investigation of these emerging pollutants is urgently encouraged.

Pesticides are increasingly recognized as relevant stressors in stream ecosystems. Stream biota is exposed to pesticides with low water solubility, e.g. pyrethroid insecticides, via water, habitat, and food. However, long-term effects of simultaneous exposure pathways are unknown. In this context, we conducted a microcosm experiment with the caddisfly Anabolia nervosa exposing the larvae to the pyrethroid insecticide esfenvalerate (EFV) at 0.1 and 1.0μgL−1 via (i) water, (ii) food or a (iii) combination of water and food. Combined exposure through water and food significantly reduced emergence by 60% and significantly postponed emergence timing at the highest EFV level, whereas none of the single-phase exposures showed significant effects. Moreover, our study revealed that successfully emerged females from the highest biphasic treatment level were characterised by altered composition of storage lipids indicative of reduced energy reserves. Consequently, a realistic test scenario that represents simultaneous exposure of organisms and their food may reveal substantially increased long term effects of pyrethroids when compared with current ecological risk assessment applying only single phase exposure. We recommend that relevant concurrent exposure routes of pesticides should be considered in order to derive realistic regulatory acceptable concentrations of pesticides.

Asia, Europe, Oceania, North America, South America, Middle East and Africa.The purpose of this paper is to review and analyze the water, energy, and food nexus and regions of study, nexus keywords and stakeholders in order to understand the current state of nexus research.Through selected 37 projects, four types of nexus research were identified including water–food, water–energy–food, water–energy, and climate related. Among them, six projects (16%) had a close linkage with water–food, 11 (30%) with water–energy–food, 12 (32%) with water–energy, and eight (22%) with climate. The regions were divided into Asia, Europe, Oceania, North America, South America, Middle East and Africa. North America and Oceania had a tendency to focus on a specific nexus type, water–energy (46%) and climate (43%), while Africa had less focus on water–energy (7%). Regarding keywords, out of 37 nexus projects, 16 projects listed keywords in their articles. There were 84 keywords in total, which were categorized by the author team depending on its relevance to water, food, energy, climate, and combination of water–food–energy–climate, and 40 out of 84 keywords were linked with water and only 4 were linked with climate. As for stakeholders, 77 out of 137 organizations were related to research and only two organizations had a role in media.

Irrigated agriculture is the backbone of Central Asian economies. Therefore, efficient irrigation water management is of crucial importance to the sustainable crop production in the region. Presented here are two studies aiming to improve agricultural water productivity â?? ET-based irrigation scheduling in Uzbekistan; and valuation of ecosystem services in Kazakhstan. The ET-based irrigation scheduling method has potential to replace subjective daily water management decisions at Water Users Association level with crop water demand-based decisions to improve water-use efficiency. Results from a two year study show that there can be a 32-35% saving of water when irrigation is applied using the ET-based scheduling method. The pilot plots are representative of 38% of irrigated area in Fergana Valley (241,407ha) and 50% in Khorezm (137,500ha) area. If this methodology is widely adopted, large amounts of water can be saved which can be diverted for other purposes. Flood irrigation of cotton is practiced on 128,000ha in the Bugunski Reservoir watershed of Kazakhstan. This practice is unsustainable due to seasonal unavailability in water supply and depletion of river discharges that were historically important at maintaining water levels downstream in nearby wetlands and the Aral Sea. Farmer surveys were used along with RIOS and SWAT modeling to evaluate alternative irrigation practices and cropping systems that can conserve water from the Bugunski Reservoir while maintaining farmer incomes. Simulations show significant reductions in irrigation water demand in the alternative scenario relative to the baseline scenario. Under baseline flood irrigation of cotton, annual irrigation demand was 928 MCM/yr averaged over the 32 year climatic record simulated. Irrigation demand decreased by 38% to 573 MCM/yr when 40,439ha of flood irrigated cotton was converted to drip irrigated cotton, sprinkler irrigated alfalfa and drip irrigated grapes. This represents a savings of 355 MCM/yr in water extracted from irrigation canals and groundwater wells | Vinay Nangia. (7/11/2016). Managing Scarce Water Resources in Irrigated Agri-Food Systems of Central Asia Two Case Studies. Phoenix, United States: American Society of Agronomy.

A mass-balance Ecopath model of coastal areas in the Caspian Sea has been constructed for a quantitative description of the trophic structure of the ecosystem. The model is used to estimate the important biological parameters and relationships among the different ecologically important groups. Twenty five species were used in the present analysis. The model is based on the data collected of Kilka fisheries, beach seining (Bony fish fisheries), and set Gillnet (Sturgeon Fisheries) and also dietary information. Total landings along the Iranian portion of southern Caspian coast reached 39647 t, including sturgeon (41 t), kilka (22873 t) and bony fishes (16733 t) in 2014. Two species of kilka (Common kilka and Anchovy) are important commercially in the Caspian Sea, together accounting in the past decade for > 60 % of the total catch, as well as being a crucial part of the food chain. The mean average trophic level was estimated at 3.17 by Ecopath software. In this research, the mean level were studied between eight species varied from 2.56 to 4.04, Sander lucioperca occupy the highest and the as vimba vimba was the lowest level. The ranges of total mortality varied from 0.5 to 2.56 per years. The food consumption rate was estimated about 101.56 per year Mixd trophic level index (MTI) showed small pelagic fishes as prey, have crucial role in feeding of pelagic predators population such as invasion of the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi, bream fish and benthic fish such as sturgeon. In general, niche overlap was greater in more species such as Alburnus chalcoides, Rutilus rutilus, Clupeonella cultriventris, Rutilus kutum and M. leidyi who consumed large amounts of plankton. In conclusion small pelagic fish exert a major control on the trophic dynamics of the Caspian Sea ecosystems and constitute midtrophic-level populations.