North China Plain suffers from the world’s most severe water scarcity and groundwater depletion due to intensive irrigation for agricultural production. It is imperative to reduce irrigation water consumption while safeguarding crop production and food security. This study conducted a quantitative analysis with deficit irrigation strategies for winter wheat using a water-driven AquaCrop model. After model calibration and validation with field experimental data, we analyzed the irrigation water demand, crop yield, and water productivity (WP) of winter wheat under various deficit irrigation scenarios. A set of optimal irrigation schedules were proposed for different climate years, which significantly mitigated irrigation water usage while sustaining high yields and WPs. The results indicated that despite the irrigation water demand of winter wheat under the future climate scenario was slightly higher than that in the historical period, their crop water sensitive periods (reviving, jointing, and flowering) remained the same. Therefore, we recommended adopting the same deficit irrigation schedules for the historical and future periods. In wet years, adopting a 50% deficit irrigation strategy only reduced crop yields by less than 5% compared with full irrigation, but it saved 1000–1100 m3 of water per hectare and contributed a WP higher than 1.88 kg/m3. While in normal and dry years, an optimal 25% deficit irrigation could sustain over 96% of the maximum yield, meanwhile it could save 650–800 m3/ha of water and achieve almost the same WP as full irrigation. These climate-smart irrigation strategies adapting to diverse climatic conditions largely mitigate agricultural water consumption while maximizing crop productivity and water use efficiency, which are essential for achieving precision irrigation and sustainable water management under a changing climate.

Recurring foodborne outbreaks, attributed to Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella sp., and Listeria monocytogenes, have identified irrigation water as a potential source of contamination, and creating the necessity for safe irrigation water in produce cultivation, as emphasized by the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA). In response to this imperative, this study explored the efficacy of surfactant-modified zeolite (SMZ) enhanced with Cetrimonium bromide (CTAB) as a sustainable water purification solution for surface water. The SMZ was assessed to have the capacity to filter contaminated water with high loads of foodborne pathogens. A laboratory study was conducted using a 100 g SMZ column. A liter of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) was inoculated for each pathogen at 6 log CFU mL-1 concentrations. The study found that SMZ modified with CTAB at a concentration exceeding 20% by weight, indicating the ratio of CTAB to the total mass of the modifying solution, could eliminate >6 log CFU mL-1 of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes and >2 log of Salmonella sp. Subsequent field testing in strawberry farms demonstrated the system’s effectiveness, displaying significant bacterial reduction when contrasted with unfiltered pond water and sand filtration. The SMZ was able to filter more than 4 log CFU mL-1, from surface irrigation water spiked with a nonpathogenic Escherichia coli strain. The results indicate that the SMZ filtration approach holds promise as a remediation tool to control the risks of foodborne disease outbreaks associated with agricultural water. | Brotes alimentarios han sido atribuidos a Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella sp., y Listeria monocytogenes, y se ha identificado el agua de riego como una posible fuente de contaminación. Esto realza la necesidad de agua de riego segura en productos hortofrutícolas, como lo enfatiza la Ley de Modernización de la Seguridad Alimentaria (FSMA). En respuesta a este imperativo, este estudio exploró la eficacia de la zeolita modificada con surfactante (SMZ) modificada con bromuro de cetrimonio (CTAB) como una solución para la purificación de agua superficial. Se determinó que el SMZ tiene la capacidad de filtrar agua contaminada con altas cargas de patógenos transmitidos por alimentos. Se realizó un estudio de laboratorio utilizando una columna de SMZ de 100 g. Para cada patógeno, se inoculó un litro de solución salina tamponada con fosfato (PBS) a concentraciones de 6 log UFC mL-1. Los resultados revelaron que SMZ, con una concentración de CTAB al 20% por peso total de la solución modificadora, podría eliminar >6 log UFC mL-1 de Escherichia coli O157:H7 y Listeria monocytogenes y >2 log UFC mL-1 de Salmonella sp. Las pruebas de campo en granjas de fresas demostraron la efectividad del sistema, mostrando una reducción bacteriana en comparación con el agua de estanque sin filtrar o filtrada con arena. El SMZ pudo filtrar más de 4 log UFC mL-1 del agua de riego superficial inoculada con una cepa no patogénica de Escherichia coli. Los resultados sugieren que la filtración SMZ podría controlar riesgos de brotes por agua agrícola.

Esta actividad está soportada por el proyecto Red AgriFoodTe financiada por el Gobierno de Aragón, a través del fondo de inversiones de Teruel (año 2022), con participación del Gobierno de España (Ministerio de Política Territorial).

Tradicionalmente ha existido, y en cierta medida sigue existiendo, cierto recelo sobre el uso del agua en agricultura. En los países húmedos es difícil entender que en otras zonas del mundo se pueda utilizar agua rodada o de pozos para el riego de los cultivos, e incluso una importante mayoría de la población de los países secos no entiende porqué la agricultura debe movilizar volúmenes tan importantes de agua. Se estima que en los países donde se riegan los cultivos, la agricultura utiliza un 70% del agua destinada a usos consuntivos (ciudades, agricultura, industria, ...). La razón de este importante uso está principalmente en que el agua es el elemento imprescindible para la producción de alimentos, de tal forma que podemos afirmar rotundamente que sin agua no hay alimentos y que la capacidad de producir alimentos depende directamente del volumen de agua del que disponen las plantas. El uso del agua en la agricultura no es un capricho de los agricultores sino una necesidad imperativa para que la sociedad pueda disponer de alimentos. Los agricultores "no son tan malos", hacen uso de un recurso imprescindible para producir esos alimentos y asegurar su subsistencia. El cambio climático, el aumento de la población mundial y las inestabilidades internacionales presionan el sistema productor de alimentos, lo que implica que hay que ser mucho más eficiente en el uso de estos recursos y de forma muy especial en el caso del agua: hay que producir más alimentos con menos agua. Un reto ineludible que recae sobre el sector agro, y que nos interpela a todos a hacer un uso muy eficiente del recurso agua. Agricultores, técnicos, administración deben adaptarse a esta realidad, pero, también, y de forma muy especial la sociedad, no se trata tan solo de que os agricultores puedan seguir produciendo alimentos, se trata de que haya suficientes alimentos para abastecer la demanda de la población mundial. | info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

An increasing number of people faces chronic water shortage, and 17% of watersheds suffer from overconsumption. Agriculture is the main water consumer globally, and irrigation comprises most of the agricultural water consumption. Irrigation more than doubled between 1960 and 2000. In many cases, water-intensive goods are produced in water-scarce countries, and virtual (irrigation) water is traded by agribusinesses. Food products potentially have an impact on local water resources in the production area. The water scarcity footprint of products can be calculated by applying the AWARE method within the life cycle assessment (LCA). AWARE is a relatively new method but is already recommended by several influential organisations (e.g. the European Commission), and it will probably therefore be applied widely in the coming years. The goal of this thesis was to study how the AWARE method compares to other water scarcity footprint methods in LCA for food products, study the water scarcity footprint of three common food products in Finland and the hotspots of the food products, and identify further LCA research needs for improving the performance of the chain and for harmonised LCA. Three food case studies were selected to assist in answering the research questions: milk (Article I), coffee (Article II), and broiler meat (Article III) produced for the Finnish market. Basic knowledge of the suitability of the AWARE method for a food product was produced in the milk case study. The water scarcity footprint of all three foodstuffs was assessed, and hotspots were identified. The interpretation of the results was supported by a detailed analysis of the challenges especially in the life cycle inventory phase and some further sensitivity analyses. Finally, recommendations for compiling good-quality life cycle inventory (LCI) data in water scarcity assessment to support the achievement of the LCA study’s goal were made. To support the analysis, the new terms ‘internal development LCA’ and ‘external harmonised LCA’ were proposed. An internal development life cycle assessment refers to a life cycle assessment that aims to evaluate the environmental effects of a specific product or service to support the development of the environmental performance of the product. External harmonised LCA is needed when comparisons, benchmarking, or public propositions are executed. In contrast with internal development LCA, the methods or their application cannot be selected freely according to the goal of the study in external harmonised LCA, but specific rules for LCA, Environmental Declaration Criteria, or Product Category Rules are followed. The LCIs in the case studies were analysed, and observations were made especially concerning the following aspects: identifying relevant processes and elementary waterflows; data collection methods; assumptions due to missing data or default origins; raw data modification methods; allocation methods and the link between inventory and impact assessment. A commonly observed challenge was the lack of knowledge of the origins of the inputs. A general conclusion about the AWARE method is that the water scarcity footprint result reflected both water consumption and the characteristics of the region in the form of a characterisation factor. This dissertation work’s results support the claim that the indicator has a clear and understandable physical meaning. Food product chain hotspots were recognised. If irrigation was applied, it dominated the water scarcity results. Irrigation dominated the water scarcity results of primary production, but even without irrigation, the magnitude of primary production was remarkable. The consumption stage may also be important for the water scarcity footprint. Water scarcity footprints have a strong spatial nature. The effect of geographical location on water scarcity footprint is especially important. Because of the regional character of water scarcity footprint, it seems it is generally impossible to define any normal or typical level of water scarcity footprint result of a certain food product, but products from different origins will have different water scarcity footprints. However, with stronger evidence in the scientific literature, it is likely that the typical water scarcity footprints of certain food items produced in certain regions can be defined in the future. According to the results of this thesis, improved primary data production and traceability to determine the origins of the inputs is needed in many cases to improve the results’ accuracy. The spatial nature of the water scarcity footprint considerably increases the need for regionalised (spatially differentiated) data. The production of geographically representative datasets is time- and resource-consuming work, but it is necessary for improving the accuracy of LCA studies applying AWARE. All data should be compatible with the definition of consumptive water in ISO 14046. Using theoretically modelled data instead of primary data may result in inaccuracy. This is an important question, especially with the volume of irrigation water, because the relative share of water for irrigation may be remarkable if included in the production chain. In harmonised LCA, the calculation rules should guarantee the harmonisation, at least at a reasonable level, but product category rules (PCRs) do not necessarily instruct the use of AWARE at a detailed level. Regarding the water scarcity effect, the PCR should list when primary data must be produced about the input, and when information about the origin of the input is mandatory, even if there is no other basic information about the product. In particular, the evaluation of irrigation water must be instructed. | Kasvava osa maailman väestöstä kärsii kroonisesta vesiniukkuudesta ja 17 % vesistöalueista kärsii liiallisesta vedenkulutuksesta. Maailmanlaajuisesti maatalous on merkittävin vedenkuluttaja, ja suurin osa maatalouden vedenkulutuksesta johtuu kasteluveden käytöstä. Vesi-intensiivisiä tuotteita tuotetaan usein vesiniukoissa maissa ja virtuaalista (kastelu)vettä ostetaan ja myydään maataloustuotteiden myötä. Tuotteiden vesiniukkuusvaikutuksia voidaan mitata elinkaariarvioinnissa (LCA) AWARE-vaikutustenarviointimenetelmällä. AWARE on suhteellisen uusi menetelmä, mutta useat vaikutusvaltaiset organisaatiot (esim. Euroopan komissio) suosittelevat sitä jo, ja siksi menetelmää tultaneen todennäköisesti soveltamaan laajalti tulevina vuosina. Tämän väitöskirjatyön tavoitteena oli tutkia, miten AWARE-menetelmä vertautuu muihin vesiniukkuuden arviointimenetelmiin elintarvikkeiden elinkaariarvioinnissa, tutkia kolmen Suomessa yleisen elintarvikkeen eli maidon, kahvin ja broilerinlihan vesiniukkuusvaikutusta ja niiden ongelmakohtia, sekä tunnistaa lisätutkimustarpeita ketjun ympäristösuorituskyvyn parantamiseksi ja harmonisoidun elinkaariarvioinnin tekemiseksi. Kaikkien kolmen elintarvikkeen vesiniukkuusvaikutukset arvioitiin ja vesiniukkuuden kannalta oleelliset tuotantovaiheet tunnistettiin. Tulokset osoittavat, että jos kastelua käytettiin, se hallitsi vesiniukkuusvaikutustuloksia, mutta ilman kasteluakin alkutuotannon merkitys oli huomattava. Myös kulutusvaihe voi olla tärkeä vesiniukkuusvaikutuksen kannalta. Maantieteellisen sijainnin vaikutus veden niukkuuteen on erityisen tärkeä. Vesiniukkuusvaikutusten arviointi on mahdollista elintarvikkeille, mutta vesiniukkuuden alueellisen luonteen vuoksi on erittäin haastavaa määritellä yleisesti tietyn ruoka-aineen normaalia tai tyypillistä vesiniukkuusvaikutuksen tasoa, jos sitä tuotetaan eri puolilla maailmaa. Monissa tapauksissa tarvitaan enemmän primääritiedon tuotantoa ja syötteiden alkuperän jäljitettävyyttä, jotta tulosten tarkkuus paranee. Vesiniukkuusvaikutuksen alueellinen luonne lisää huomattavasti alueellisesti eriytetyn tiedon tarvetta. Maantieteellisesti edustavien aineistojen tuottaminen on aikaa ja resursseja vievää työtä, mutta se on välttämätöntä, jotta ymmärrys ruuan vaikutuksesta veden niukkuuteen lisääntyy.

Summary of ongoing PhD research presented as a poster at the University of Edinburgh Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies Annual PGR Conference, 23 April 2024

Achieving the objectives of sustainable development in water and agri-food systems requires the utilisation of decision-support tools in stakeholder-driven processes to construct and simulate various scenarios and evaluate the outcomes of associated policy interventions. While it is common practice to involve stakeholders in participatory modelling processes, their comprehensive documentation and the lessons learned remain scarce. In this paper, we share our experience of engaging stakeholders throughout the entire system dynamics modelling process. We draw on two projects implemented in the Volta River Basin, West Africa, to understand the dynamics of water and agri-food systems under changing environmental and socioeconomic conditions. We outline eight key insights and lessons as practical guides derived from each stage of the participatory modelling process, including the pre-workshop stage, problem definition, model conceptualization, simulation model formulation, model testing and verification, and policy design and evaluation. Our findings demonstrate that stakeholders can actively contribute to all phases of the system dynamics modelling process, including parameter estimation, sensitivity analysis, and numerical simulation experiments. However, we encountered notable challenges, including the time-intensive nature of the process, the struggle to reach a consensus on the modelled problem, and the difficulty of translating the conceptual model into a simulation model using stock and flow diagrams – all of which were addressed through a structured facilitation process. While the projects were anchored in the specific context of West Africa, the key lessons and insights highlighted have broader significance, particularly for researchers employing PSDM in regions characterised by multifaceted human-environmental systems and where stakeholder involvement is crucial for holistic understanding and effective policy interventions. This paper contributes practical guidance for future efforts with participatory modelling, particularly in regions worldwide grappling with sustainable development challenges in water and agri-food systems, and where stakeholder involvement is crucial for holistic understanding of the multiple challenges and for designing effective policy interventions.

Infrastructure in river basins is essential to achieving several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG 2 on zero hunger, SDG 6 on water and sanitation, and SDG 7 on affordable and clean energy. However, important tradeoffs and synergies need to be navigated across these goals as both water and resources for infrastructure investments are limited. In transboundary river basins, such tradeoffs can transcend countries, creating a complex, interconnected system of water-energy-food linkages. With increasing pressures on the Blue Nile’s water resources from population and economic growth and climate change, an analytical framework for joint planning of these essential human development goals at a fine temporal resolution and considering multi-national priorities can enhance the potential to achieve water, energy, and food security. In this study, we develop and apply a framework for water resources planning in the Blue Nile using four steps: (1) understanding the water-energy-food nexus management landscape through stakeholder engagement and literature review; (2) developing a detailed daily simulator that captures major nexus components and objectives at a fine temporal scale; (3) linking the simulator to an Artificial intelligence-based search algorithm to design efficient agricultural and dam operation portfolios considering national and sectoral priorities; and (4) presenting the results using interactive visualization tools to facilitate dialogue and support decisions. Our results identify efficient operation plans for large dams on the Blue Nile for alternative cropping patterns in expanded irrigation areas in Sudan that minimize tradeoffs across water, energy, and food objectives. | Natural Resources and Resilience (NRR); Transformation Strategies; Development Strategies and Governance (DSG)

This report documents the results of the national policy dialogue on “Towards Inclusive Canal Water Management for Resilience Agri-food Systems in Coastal Bangladesh”. The platform brought together key stakeholders from both national and local levels to make actionable pathways. The dialogue focused on deliberating inclusive canal water management strategies to enhance agri-food systems in Bangladesh's coastal regions. It showed key findings on the challenges and opportunities for resilient canal water management while seeking actionable policy pathways to address governance gaps in agri-food systems. Furthermore, the event emphasized strengthening the capacities of national, regional, and local actors to develop and implement nature-based, gender-equitable, and inclusive governance frameworks, ensuring long-term resilience and sustainability of the country’s agri-food systems. This event was organized by the Center for Natural Resource Studies, with support from the CGIAR Initiative on Asian Mega-Deltas.