Using water-energy-food-environment (WEFE) nexus as the prism, this review explores evolution of groundwater governance in Iran, Saudi Arabia, Mexico, China, Bangladesh and India – which together account for two-thirds of the global groundwater-irrigated area. Global discourse has blamed widespread water scarcity squarely on supply-side policymaking and advocated a broader template of water governance instruments. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) presented just such a template – with pricing, participation, rights and entitlements, laws, regulations, and river basin organizations – as additional water governance tools. However, the IWRM template faced disillusionment and pushback in many emerging economies. WEFE nexus, the new paradigm, prioritizes system-level optima over sectoral maxima by harnessing synergies and optimizing trade-offs between food, water, energy, soil, and eco-system sustainability within planetary boundaries. Realizing this vision presents a complex challenge in groundwater governance. Global groundwater economy comprises three sub-economies: (a) diesel-powered unregulated, as in Nepal terai, eastern India, Bangladesh, Pakistan Punjab and Sind, and much of Sub-Saharan Africa, where use-specific energy subsidies are impractical; (b) electricity-powered regulated, as in North America and Europe, where tubewells are authorized, metered and subject to consumption-linked energy charges; and (c) electricity-powered unregulated, as in geographies covered by our review – barring China, Bengal and Bangladesh – where unmeasured electricity subsidies have created a bloated groundwater economy. This last sub-economy represents the heartland of global groundwater malgovernance, least equipped to meet the sustainability challenge. It has an estimated 300 million horsepower of grid-connected electric pumps that are either unauthorized and/or unmetered and/or use free or heavily subsidized or pilfered power for irrigating 50–52 million hectares, nearly half of global groundwater-irrigated area. In (a) and (b), groundwater scarcity inspires water-energy saving behavior via increased energy cost of pumping. In sub-economy (c), users are immune to energy costs and impervious to groundwater depletion. Here, the WEFE nexus has remained blind to the irrigation realpolitik that catalyzes or constrains policy action. We explore why the political costs of rationalizing subsidies are prohibitive and exemplify how a smart transition from fossil to solar energy for pumping may offer an opportunity to turn the perverse WEFE nexus into a virtuous one.

Leaf protein concentrates (LPCs) from green leafy biomass have potential as a sustainable protein source. Here, protein composition, solubility, foamability, and interfacial properties of LPCs from six different biomass types (beetroot, kale, lucerne, mangold, spinach, and sugarbeet) were evaluated. Although the LPCs showed some differences in protein composition and solubility, the foamability and interfacial properties were strikingly similar. RuBisCO was the major protein in all LPCs. All LPCs demonstrated lower solubility at pH 5.0 and 3.0 than at pH 7.0. Both the highest and the lowest solubility was found for sugarbeet: 67.6 ± 7.9% at pH 7.0 and 9.2 ± 4.0% at pH 5.0. The LPCs formed aggregates of increasing size at pH 3–4.5, matching the solubility results. The LPCs stabilized foams in a preliminary foaming test, although the main focus was on evaluating air-water interfacial properties. The ability of the proteins to diffuse to and adsorb at the interface and their ability to form viscoelastic films thereat, using an optical tensiometry method, was investigated. All six LPCs showed an interfacial behavior resembling that of reference egg white protein (0.1–1.0 mg/ml). Our findings indicate good opportunities for using LPCs in food applications and in particular as an alternative to egg white in foams.

The energy-water-food (EWF) nexus is an approach to resource management that highlights the inextricable relationship that exists among three essential resources. The EWF nexus is aimed at fostering interlinkages, limiting trade-offs and exploiting synergies that exist amongst these resources. Adopting the nexus approach is key to sustainable development, as it can alleviate resource insecurities and harness collaboration between sectors. Several EWF nexus-related studies have exhaustively analysed the different levels of decision-making within the nexus. However, these studies have failed to account for the multi-level relationship that exists among the different levels of the nexus, as most have adopted a level-based approach. This review study presents a novel multi-level approach to addressing the EWF nexus-related challenges. The study analyses the multiple levels that exist within the EWF nexus. The three levels identified are the molecule, process, and governance levels. The study goes on to show how communication amongst all three levels not only impacts the performance of the system but is crucial for decision-making as the three stages are intrinsically related such that the decisions at one level directly influences the others. The study starts by reviewing the various molecular-level changes that can be made in each of the EWF resources to enhance their performance. Then a review of the set of modelling and analytical tools that have been applied to the process and governance levels are presented. Finally, a novel decision-making pyramid integrating all three levels is presented and discussed using the case of a greenhouse food production system.

Soil and water conservation technologies are critical in reducing drought and soil erosion risks and increasing crop yields and incomes. Yet, there is limited empirical evidence on the extent and impacts of adopting soil and water conservation technologies in Tanzania. The study’s objective is to evaluate the adoption (as well as the duration of adoption) and the impacts of soil and water conservation technologies on income and food security in Tanzania. The study employs a control function approach and the instrumental variable quantile treatment effects model to survey data from 575 households to estimate the average and distributional impacts of adoption. The results show that the adoption and duration of adopting soil and water conservation technologies had significant and positive effects on the total value of crop production and household income. Moreover, we find that the adoption and its duration had a significant and positive impact on the food security indicator—household dietary diversity. The results from the instrumental variable quantile treatment effects model also show that the impacts of adopting soil and water conservation technologies on the outcome variables are positive and significant, although they vary significantly across the income and food security distributions. The results indicate that even though adoption benefits households in both the lower and upper quantiles of the income and food security distributions, the marginal impacts of adoption are generally more significant for the households in the upper quantiles. The paper concludes by discussing the policy options for increasing and sustaining the adoption and impacts of soil and water conservation technologies in Tanzania.

Water lilies and lotus are regarded as good source of food, nutrition, and medicinal purposes. This review assessed scientific evidence for application of fifteen species of water lilies and lotus as functional and nutraceutical food ingredient in food and pharmaceutical industries. The nutritional value and phytochemical compounds of lotus and water lilies were reviewed. Additionally, the health benefits of water lilies and lotus as anti-inflammatory, hepato-protective, anti-hyperglycaemic, anti-hyperlipidaemic, and anticancer were highlighted. Water lilies and lotus could be commercially cultivated, harvested and processed to feed the increasing human population. Future studies should be conducted on physicochemical, thermal, rheological and pasting properties of major components i.e. starch of water lilies and lotus. Additionally, in vivo and in vitro studies should be explored to address safety, toxicity and cytotoxicity of water lilies and lotus for application in food and pharmaceutical industries.

International audience

This chapter focuses on the multiple facets and meanings of water and how it is a contested resource. It also explores linkages between SDG 6 (Clean water and sanitation) and SDG 2 (Zero hunger). Water is essential for all life and integral to the functioning of food systems; similarly, changes in our food systems are essential to achieve SDG 6. And improvements in both are needed to reduce inequities in resources and achievements. As an example, land, food and water rights often go hand in hand, and are marked by gender, caste, racial and other exclusions. The chapter highlights how accessing water for food security can be challenging for smallholders and for vulnerable and marginalized women and men, and how water allocation systems, privatization and reform processes can affect local people’s rights to water, land and food. It argues for the need to improve policy coherence across water, land and food, and concludes by making a case for strengthening the relationship between the human right to water and food, especially for marginalized women and men.

Water lilies and lotus are regarded as good source of food, nutrition, and medicinal purposes. This review assessed scientific evidence for application of fifteen species of water lilies and lotus as functional and nutraceutical food ingredient in food and pharmaceutical industries. The nutritional value and phytochemical compounds of lotus and water lilies were reviewed. Additionally, the health benefits of water lilies and lotus as anti-inflammatory, hepato-protective, anti-hyperglycaemic, anti-hyperlipidaemic, and anticancer were highlighted. Water lilies and lotus could be commercially cultivated, harvested and processed to feed the increasing human population. Future studies should be conducted on physicochemical, thermal, rheological and pasting properties of major components i.e. starch of water lilies and lotus. Additionally, in vivo and in vitro studies should be explored to address safety, toxicity and cytotoxicity of water lilies and lotus for application in food and pharmaceutical industries.

For the 1.5 billion people living in fragile and conflict-affected situations, livelihood challenges are compounded by climate change, unsustainable resource consumption, poor governance, and weak social cohesion. Disaster risk reduction (DRR) and preparedness are critical components of a comprehensive approach to managing and mitigating the impact of disasters. While anticipatory action (AA) interventions for monitoring socio-ecological risks are gaining prominence, the approaches and risk indicators differ considerably within and between climate, development, and humanitarian communities. There is also a fundamental variance in approaches and risk indicators relating to triggers and trigger components. This diversity underscores the need for a cohesive framework which addresses these disparities. Here we define a novel typology of fragility and risk indicators from a food, land and water system perspective, which supports the evolving nature of anticipatory action.