Since 20 years the application of integrated pest management in citrus orchards is studied in Turkey. About 88 different citrus pests were observed out of which 15 pests have to be considered as key pests. For most pests a lot of native natural enemies were observed in Turkey which are able to control almost all key pasts, if the natural balance was not destroyed by the excessive use of pesticides. Enhancement of natural enemies, the importation of specific parasitoids and predators and the application of summer oil once or twice a year were found to control all major pests successfully. In this report we present and discuss the principal control strategies of all major pests in the integrated pest management program, developed within the last 20 years

The aim of this work was to investigate whether parthenocarpic fruit growth could avoid flushing, i.e. an irregular yield pattern, in sweet pepper. Plants were grown in a greenhouse compartment from April until August. Half of the plants were grown without a fruit set treatment (control), whereas parthenocarpic fruits were allowed to develop on the other plants by preventing self-pollination and applying auxin to the stigma. For node positions 3 to 17, fruit set per node varied between 21 and 55 % for control plants [coefficient of variation (CV) = 11%], whereas auxin-treated plants showed much less variation in fruit set (41-57%; CV = 5%) and average fruit set was higher. In agreement with fruit set, fruit yield was also much more regular in the auxin-treated plants. Fruit fresh yield varied between 0.2 and 1.0 kg m(-2) for control plants (CV = 20%), and between 0.4 and 0.8 kg m(-2) for auxin-treated plants (CV = 9%). Results showed that developing seeds in sweet pepper fruits are the main cause of the abortion of new flowers, and irregular fruit set and yield. Parthenocarpic fruit growth resulted in flatter, 30% smaller fruits, because of a reduction in fruit growth rate; the duration of fruit growth was 1 week longer than for fruits from control plants. Parthenocarpic fruits were hardly affected by blossom-end rot (BER) with only 1% of fruits being affected compared to 31% in the control. Total dry mass production was the same for treated and control plants; however, in auxin-treated plants, 50% of the total dry mass was allocated to the fruits, compared to 58% in control plants.

The aim of this work was to investigate whether parthenocarpic fruit growth could avoid flushing, i.e. an irregular yield pattern, in sweet pepper. Plants were grown in a greenhouse compartment from April until August. Half of the plants were grown without a fruit set treatment (control), whereas parthenocarpic fruits were allowed to develop on the other plants by preventing self-pollination and applying auxin to the stigma. For node positions 3 to 17, fruit set per node varied between 21 and 55␏or control plants [coefficient of variation (CV) = 11 whereas auxin-treated plants showed much less variation in fruit set (41–57 CV = 5€and average fruit set was higher. In agreement with fruit set, fruit yield was also much more regular in the auxin-treated plants. Fruit fresh yield varied between 0.2 and 1.0 kg m-2for control plants (CV = 20Œ and between 0.4 and 0.8 kg m-2for auxin-treated plants (CV = 9Ž Results showed that developing seeds in sweet pepper fruits are the main cause of the abortion of new flowers, and irregular fruit set and yield. Parthenocarpic fruit growth resulted in flatter, 30␜maller fruits, because of a reduction in fruit growth rate; the duration of fruit growth was 1 week longer than for fruits from control plants. Parthenocarpic fruits were hardly affected by blossom-end rot (BER) with only 1␘f fruits being affected compared to 31␒n the control. Total dry mass production was the same for treated and control plants; however, in auxin-treated plants, 50␘f the total dry mass was allocated to the fruits, compared to 58␒n control plants.

'Gala' apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) fruit pre-treated with 0.5 microliter L(-1) 1-methylcyclopropene (MCP) or air (control) for 12 h at 20 degrees C were exposed to gamma radiation at doses of 0, 0.44, 0.88 or 1.32 kGy at 23 degrees C. The fruit were then stored at 20 degrees C for 3 weeks or at 0 degrees C for 8 weeks plus 7 days at 20 degrees C. Fruit treated with MCP had higher firmness and titratable acidity (TA) than control fruit after storage at either temperature. During the post-irradiation storage at 20 degrees C, irradiation promoted respiration of MCP-treated fruit throughout the 3-week period but had no consistent effect on respiration of control fruit. Fruit firmness and TA decreased with increased radiation dose after 3 weeks storage at 20 degrees C regardless of MCP treatment. Compared to non-irradiated fruit, irradiated fruit had lower TA and similar firmness after storage at 0 degrees C for 8 weeks plus 7 days at 20 degrees C. Some irradiated fruit stored at 20 degrees C for 3 weeks developed internal browning, and MCP-treated fruit had more injury than control fruit. Storage at 0 degrees C after irradiation greatly reduced development of internal browning. Production of volatile esters, alcohols and 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one by fruit stored at 0 degrees C was reduced. The magnitude of reduction directly increased with radiation dose. It appears that some responses of apple fruit to gamma radiation are influenced by ethylene action and post-irradiation storage temperature.

The management of Botrytis fruit rot on annual strawberry by fungicides was evaluated in Florida during the 1995-96, 1996-97, and 1997-98 seasons. Weekly applications of captan or thiram, bloom applications of iprodione applied twice during each of two peak flowering periods, and weekly applications of captan combined with iprodione bloom applications were evaluated. Significant treatment effects (P less than or equal to 0.05) on the incidence of Botrytis fruit rot were detected for the early, late, and whole-season periods each season. Weekly applications of captan or thiram controlled Botrytis fruit rot, reducing disease incidence by more than 41% compared to the untreated control. These treatments also affected marketable yield during two seasons, with a 42 to 127% increase in yield compared to the control. Weekly fungicide applications did not reduce the incidence of Botrytis fruit rot until at least the fourth week of harvest, 9 to 10 weeks after applications began. Bloom applications of iprodione alone reduced the incidence of Botrytis fruit rot during the second peak bloom period, and the reductions in incidence occurred 1 to 3 weeks after the start of bloom applications. This suggests that iprodione applications control infections at flowering or early stages of fruit development. However, early-season bloom applications did not reduce the incidence of Botrytis fruit rot. The control of Botrytis fruit rot by weekly captan applications was not improved by the addition of iprodione bloom applications. These data suggest that early-season fungicide applications for the control of Botrytis fruit rot in annual winter strawberry are of limited efficacy, and that bloom applications of Botryticides such as iprodione should be focused on the second peak bloom period.

The article gives an overview of areas where computers and electronics have made a particular impact on the postharvest industry. These include environmental control and storage, quality monitoring, quality management, grading systems, inventory control, and management of product. Specific examples of the application of electronic systems have been given to illustrate the current state of postharvest technology, and some future predictions have been given. It is likely that consumer demand for improved quality, longer storage life, and guaranteed product safety will continue to grow. In a highly competitive market the industry will need to meet these demands, and electronic technology will play an increasingly important role. Improved sensors to assess quality are still needed, and handling and storage systems are likely to become increasingly sophisticated. In the latter half of the twentieth century technology has contributed much to improve the world's food supply, but it has also generated problems for the wider society, which will require attention in the next millennium.

Contributed articles presented at the National Symposium on "Bicontrol of Pests and Diseases of Fruits and Medicinal Seeds" held on Dec. 28-29, 1998 at University Deptt. of Botany, T.M. Bhagalpur University.

'Kyoho' grapevines were forced in heated greenhouses following three different hours of chilling at 7.2 deg C. The forcing treatments were initiated beginning either on December 30th of 1995 (470 hours of chilling), February 1st of 1996 (994 hours of chilling), and February 28th (1,402 hours of chilling) of 1996. The control consisted of collecting data on vines growing in the field protective culture. Fruit produced on control grapevines matured between August 13th and September 4th, When forcing treatments were initiated on 'Kyoho' grapevines beginning December 30th, 1995, fruit maturity occurred between July 1st and July 16th, 1996, these were 183 to 198 days following the initiation of the forcing treatments and 43 to 50 days before the control treatments. When forcing treatments were initiated on February 1st, fruit maturity occurred between 169 to 188 days following treatment initiation and 24 to 27 days before the control treatment. Grapes on which late forcing treatments were initiated on February 28th matured fruits between 154 to 173 days into 1996 and 12 to 15 days before the control. Fruit from the early forcing treatment initiated on December 30th had greater the berry skin color (purple) and acidity than did the control fruit or fruit from later treatment dates. From these results, we revealed the growing period of 'Kyoho' grapevines on which those four cultural types were applied in Kagoshima prefecture.

The eriophyoid mite, Acalitus essigi (Hassan), is hypothesised to be responsible for redberry disease of blackberry (Rubus fruticosus L. agg.) fruit. Infested fruit ripen unevenly with affected drupelets becoming hard, inedible and bright red, whereas unaffected drupelets ripen evenly. As a first step toward possible control of this disease, the method and timing of dispersal of A. essigi onto developing blackberry fruit was examined. No mites were found on unopened flower buds or open flowers. However, infestation of fruit was found to commence during the green stage of fruit development and significantly increase during the red fruit stage. Although redberry symptoms were not observed, experimental exclusion of A. essigi to prevent the mite moving up the pedicel of open flowers by a sticky barrier significantly reduced A. essigi populations within the resultant fruit by over five fold that of control fruit. Although very low levels of aerial dispersal onto fruit cannot be discounted it was concluded that non-aerial or crawling dispersal via the fruit pedicel was the dominant method of blackberry fruit infestation.