Despite the unfortunate record of park - farmer conflicts throughout Southeast Asia, there are notable exceptions where the production objectives of local farming communities have co-existed in relative harmony with conservation goals of adjacent protected areas and have resulted in retained integrity of park boundaries and successful conservation of the biodiversity contained within. These case studies provide insights on the factors responsible for the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity and suggest ways in which conditions responsible for is maintenance may be enhanced. This paper suggests that the north-eastern flank of the Kerinci Seblat National Park in West Sumatra, Indonesia, exemplifies a relatively benign park - farmer interrelationship. It examines historical, socio-cultural, biophysical and economic factors that have shaped Minangkabau land-use patterns in the study area, with particular. focus on. the rotational bush-fallow system that constitutes the immediate farming system - park interface, and it suggests linkages with reduced pressure on park resources. The underpinnings of the relative harmony of farming systems with West Sumatra's natural environment are a unique fusion of socio-cultural characteristics of the Minangkabau, historical events that have shaped West Sumatra's development, and agroecological attributes of the landscape. Although the conditions found in this case study may not be directly extrapolated to other areas, a number of lessons emerged that can be widely applied in ongoing efforts to protect parks and conserve biodiversity | M Cairns, 'Stabilization of upland agroecosystems as a strategy for protection of national park buffer zones: a case study of the co-evolution of Minangkabau Farming Systems and Kerinci Seblat National Park', p.286, 1994

Rangelands were once simply defined as semi-natural ecosystems in which productive output is sought by simply adding domestic stock to a natural landscape. More recent definitions are less focussed on the pastoral issue, tending to be holistic, multiple-use, and multiple-value; indeed, are trending towards including all those lands (four-fifths of Australia) that for reasons of climate or terrain, cannot support sustainable crop or timber production. This decline in emphasis on single-issue commodity production allows for a more socio-economic approach to rangelands management and research, including considerations of land rights, protection of biodiversity and landscapes, sustainable management, tourism and recreation. Most of these new resource values are either not market-based, or at any rate only loosely attachable to broad-acre private landholdings. This special issue of the Journal sets out to explore these themes from a number of divergent points of view.

As a result of pressure from human activity and economic necessity many plant and animal species are disappearing, thereby depleting the world's genetic resource. Our heritage of biodiversity is under serious threat. One of the major themes of international discussion about the environment is to decide what measures should be taken to reduce this threat. How can economic necessities be reconciled with respect for the environment? Never has there been so much discussion about biodiversity as there has been in the last ten years or so, but what exactly do we mean by biodiversity? This term, a contraction of 'biological diversity', covers a number of concepts. Andr\E9 Charrier, professor at the Ecole Nationale Sup\E9rieure d'Agronomie (National Institute of Advanced Agronomy) at Montpellier, France, defines it as follows: 'Biodiversity includes all living organisms, both individuals and their relationship with one another. It is not just a collection of individuals but an interaction system where the characteristics of the individual are no less important than their function. The term genetic resource, refers to the biological material, (genes, individuals, species) taken from biodiversity and used by man for agricultural, industrial and medicinal purposes. Biodiversity is now seriously threatened worldwide and scientists are expressing deep concern. According to the American naturalist A W Wilson, 17,500 tropical plant and animal species disappear each year. Studies indicate that between 25,000 and 75,000 species will be lost by the year 2000. While it is true that extinctions have always taken place, today they seem to be occurring over a much shorter period. Long periods are necessary for the restoration of biodiversity. FAO estimates that some 75% of the genetic diversity of cultivated plants has been lost since the beginning of the century. But the loss of the genetic resource base is not the same in all countries: while in Europe and North America only a few improved varieties of a limited number of species survive and are cultivated, in developing countries the diversity of cultivated species tends to be much greater. For example, in an African village some 10 or 20 varieties of a crop may be grown and a small area only will be devoted to growing modern varieties. In the countries of the South, the loss of genetic resources is much less than might be imagined. The heart of the problem Demographic growth lies at the heart of the problem since the higher the population the more intensive the exploitation of all resources. Forests are cut down, land is cleared, bush fires rage, land is overgrazed. There is misuse of fertilizers and pesticides. Irrigation is mismanaged and there is pollution. Plant and animal habitats are destroyed. Industrial activity and urban proliferation compound the problem. This century has seen the loss of much genetic material and it is economic activity that is the cause, suggests Andr\E9 Charrier. Man has taken a limited number of plant and animal species, those considered to be the best adapted to his immediate needs, and concentrated his efforts on them. But the exclusive use of such varieties, even if they usually perform well, presents a risk of total loss should any fall victim to disease or adverse weather. On the other hand, the traditional practice of growing many different varieties of the same plant was a useful form of insurance, a risk reduction exercise which allowed farmers to minimize damage from disease. Because wild varieties have survived without the help, or interference, of man, these varieties have evolved their own strategies for resisting pests and these strategies could be valuable to us in the future. Diversity as a response to risk is not the only benefit that our biodiversity heritage offers us. Even if the full diversity of varieties is not used at present (and three plants alone, rice, wheat and maize, contribute 41% of our plant food), their existence is no less necessary. Biodiversity is our biological bank of capital resources, says Christian L\E9veque, a scientist working at ORSTOM. It is the great diversity of often increasingly at risk species that are the source of many food, pharmaceutical or industrial products on which we have come to depend: 25% of medicines are of direct plant origin and this percentage rises to 50% if one takes into account products which have been only slightly modified to improve on the natural plant. And yet it is estimated that only 1% or 2% of potentially useful medicinal plants have so far been discovered. While biodiversity is important for health generally, in Africa it is essential since those providing traditional health care have only plants and other natural products to use as medicines. Furthermore, a great many people in the world today do not have access to any other form of medicine. Plant conservation, diversification and transfer It has taken the extinction of many species for people to appreciate fully the value of the biodiversity we have inherited. Genetic resources are now the subject of much debate and these resources include wild populations, indigenous landraces and varieties which have been modified to include improved genetic characteristics. One of the principal recommendations of international organizations is that efforts should be made to conserve the wild relatives of cultivated species. They are found in the species' areas of origin which still harbor many wild species, indigenous varieties and weeds related to modern cultivated plants. The wild species form a natural reservoir for breeders seeking genes for resistance, hardiness or adaptability. In developing countries it is farmers and other rural people who have the responsibility for the evolution of genetic resources: they grow the plants in their farms and gardens. In the developed countries, however, genetic resources are stored in genebanks rather than on the land. Many genebanks were established in the sixties when breeders recognized that the biodiversity on which they depended was beginning to disappear. There are now some 50 large genebanks to which the principle of free access applies and, in theory, any breeder may receive in response to a simple request, a sample of any variety. But even though the importance of conserving genetic material is generally recognized, there appear to be difficulties over the distribution of seed. The International Agricultural Research Centres hold the largest collections of genetic material in the world. The relationship between genebanks and users is still a difficult problem. Genebanks have tended to accumulate enormous collections but they do not always have the means to classify the material properly nor do they always have the facility for multiplying the seed. According to Michael Chauvet and Louis Oliver in their book La biodiversit\E9 Enjeu plan\E9taire - Pr\E9server notre patrimoine g\E9n\E9tique, this is why genebanks are under-used. Keeping or sharing? If the case for maintaining diversity no longer needs to be proved, the means of conservation are still the subject of much discussion. The difficulty is to reconcile the needs of the local population with the needs of the natural world. Putting the forest under a protective umbrella, classifying everything within it and forbidding access are solutions which, for the countries of the south, could only ever exist on paper. Creating arboreta and botanical gardens is another possibility but of more than 670 areas which were created as natural parks in the tropics in the eighties very few still exist today. During a major drought in the Sahel, for example, who can realistically prevent farmers from exploiting land classified as a reserve? International organizations are increasingly trying to reconcile nature conservation with the activities of the people living within a protected area. Local people are being involved in the creation and maintenance of natural parks in a variety of ways which allow sharing of the financial profits which they generate, says Jacques Weber, a researcher at CIRAD. The intention is not to block the natural evolution of the traditional farming system, which in any case would be impossible, but to create an awareness of the value of biodiversity. Nowadays farmers are recognized as having a useful contribution to make to the conservation of genetic resources. Provided there is a guarantee of economic development, local people are usually willing to participate actively in conservation projects. For Gerard Sournia of IUCN, a project has no chance of success if the local population is not involved. People have to feel they are participating actively in the work on the ground. Therefore a variety of jobs which will help involve local people in the protection of resources must be included when planning any reserve. | As a result of pressure from human activity and economic necessity many plant and animal species are disappearing, thereby depleting the world's genetic resource. Our heritage of biodiversity is under serious threat. One of the major themes of...

Agricultural productivity gains since the 1950s have resulted from the development of farming systems that rely heavily on external inputs of energy and chemicals to replace management and on-farm resources. The intensity to which the natural environment has been modified to attain this productive capacity has directly resulted in degradation of the natural resources, notably land and water, that sustain these systems. The search for solutions to increasingly complex and interrelated agricultural problems including sustainable agriculture, environmental quality, food safety, and rural development requires a shift in both the scientific method and scale in which agricultural research is organized and conducted. Farming systems research and extension (FSRE) and other systems-oriented approaches fitted to agriculture are viewed as essential approaches for addressing complex agricultural problems, and for developing more efficient and sustainable farming systems. This article provides a brief synthesis of research information from several technical reports that were presented at a special symposium held during the American Society of Agronomy annual meetings in 1992. The reports cover a wide range of topics including FSRE, agricultural systems, systems engineering, information systems, and sustainable development. The ProblemWhile conventional (reductionist) agricultural research and information-technology dissemination methods have led to one of the most productive agricultural systems in the world, this productive capacity, and the tools we use to sustain it, have not come without substantial human and environmental costs. It is apparent that complementing traditional research and education approaches with alternative and innovative “systems” methods is required to address increasingly complex and interrelated agricultural problems (i.e., sustainable agriculture, environmental quality, food safety, rural economy), and to ensure that solutions developed are effective. Literature SummaryAgricultural systems research and the contemporary science of agroecology provide the theoretical basis for comprehending agricultural processes in the broadest manner, and for developing more efficient and sustainable farming systems. Understanding of ecological interactions occurring within these systems and the sustainable functioning of the agroecosystem as a whole have become the primary goals of this approach. Farming systems research and extension (FSRE) is a farmer-based systems approach originally used in low income countries. FSRE methods were developed in large part to address the needs of farmers operating more diversified farming systems in resource-poor and risk-prone environments. Although FSRE methods have not been clearly understood or widely used in the USA, there is a growing awareness of the potential benefits of maintaining farmer and other appropriate stakeholder involvement in agricultural research, education, technology development, and problem solving. Agroecology, FSRE, systems engineering, information systems, and sustainable development are examples of topics that will be examined in this report. Study DescriptionThis article provides a brief synthesis of research information from several technical reports that were presented at a special symposium held during the American Society of Agronomy meetings in 1992. Applied QuestionWhy should FSRE and other systems-oriented approaches be encouraged in U.S. agricultural research, education, and technology development? FSRE is an essential approach for involving farmers and other stakeholders from the beginning in research and technology development—from problem diagnosis, through adaptation and evaluation. FSRE and other systems-oriented methods fitted to agriculture provide a basis for identifying critical information-technology gaps and prioritizing component research needs. This reduces the incidence of redundant research (re-inventing the wheel) and the development of inappropriate farm technologies. Farm-scale ecosystems investigations can provide a better understanding of the direct influence of human action on both farming systems structure and functioning, and potential off-farm ecological impacts. Those applying systems engineering methods have found that if systems engineering principles are adopted and applied properly, agriculture will benefit from clearer problem statements, increased communication across agencies and disciplines, and an enhanced ability to design and build high-quality, user-oriented farming systems tools. Integration of agricultural research results and management information into user-oriented technologies for farm recordkeeping, budgeting, and planning can aid farm managers and agricultural practitioners in understanding complex interactions among system components, and in improving whole-farm resource management. Agriculture's role in complex, interrelated issues including environmental quality, food safety, biodiversity, and sustainable development, among others, must be critically assessed in defining and implementing future development options. Agroecology offers a useful context in which to characterize the complex relations and adaptations among natural resources (land, water, air, biodiversity) and agriculture, and provides the ecological basis for research and development of sustainable farming systems. Investigations of past and present agroecosystems should allow us to deal more effectively with the increasingly complex problems that must be addressed, and to chart a future course that will help ensure long-term agricultural viability and sustainability.

1 Birds are hugely popular and the public demands their conservation. 2 Ornithology has made a major contribution to nature conservation by virtue of this popular support. The value of birds as environmental indicators has been greatly enhanced by voluntary data collection on a wide scale over many years. 3 Habitat loss and degradation are the main causes of species decline, even though other factors may contribute to extinction. More research should address the causes of decline at an early stage, while the chance of recovery is highest. 4 The geographical ranges of native bird species should be maintained, both to avoid the risk of local or wider extinction and to enable people to enjoy them as part of their normal experience. 5 To maintain species ranges. conservation must be incorporated in policies affecting the wider countryside and the sea. This is as important as managing protected areas. 6 The management of protected areas can only be successful in the context of sympathetic management of the surrounding countryside. 7 The Biodiversity Convention requires countries to produce national conservation plans and strategies. This offers ornithologists an unprecedented opportunity to contribute to conservation by developing explicit objectives and specific targets for the maintenance (or restoration) of numbers and distributions of species, and of extent and quality of habitats. Targets should be ambitious but realistic and be sufficiently precise as to be testable. 8 Predictive models have the potential to support conservation advice, but traditional natural history studies have proved vital in the past and theory could not replace them. 9 Detailed ecological research with long data runs is the ideal basis for conservation action. But urgency demands shorter studies, informed by ecological intuition and knowledge, and reaching specific recommendations for action. 10 Conservation actions should be treated as experiments so that techniques can be improved progressively. This applies both to the management of nature reserves and to habitat management stemming from broader policy measures, for example in Environmentally Sensitive Areas. 11 Monitoring across a wide species base is essential because the threats to wildlife are unpredictable. Birds have proven to be successful indicators because they are highly visible: are enthusiastically counted by volunteers: and respond to a wide variety of environmental impacts. 12 Threshold levels, indicating the normal upper and lower levels of variation (for instance in numbers or breeding success), are needed in order to trigger prompt remedial action. 13 Monitoring, research and consenration action must be taken forward internationally. Integrated and common approaches enable exchange of data and inforniation. and reinforce national actions across the range. 14 Fxisting data need to be made more accessible by greater collaboration and openness, and by the use of computerization. 15 Ornithologists need to build stronger partnerships, both with other biologists and with decision-makers across the range of land-use and economic policy. This will be helped by better communication built on clear but simple messages for non-biologists. 16 The training of future ecologists should take account of the wide range of skills required by the expanding discipline of conservation.