Recent development of geographic information systems (GIS) provides a great deal of potential in handling a variety of spatial data required by forest resource managers. This study is designed to identify a possible GIS application in forest pest management. Several mountain pine beetle risk assessment parameters (stand characteristics, weather conditions, and topographic factor) were spatially analyzed through computer map overlaying operations in order to estimate the hazard level of the pest damage. In addition, the expected infestation route from an initially infected forest stand was located through further map analysis operations (distance measurement and connectivity analysis). Although current GIS technology may have a few limitations in operational situations, the computer based GIS has been proven as an invaluable tool to resource managers by providing flexible spatial data handling capabilities

The ecological and evolutionary aspects of planned introductions of transgenic organisms into the environment are considered in this report. The authors support the timely development of environmentally sound products, such as improved agricultural varieties, fertilizers, pest control agents, and microorganisms for waste treatment, through the use of advanced biotechnology within the context of a scientifically based regulatory policy that encourages innovation without compromising sound environmental management. Economic, social, and ethical concerns also must be weighed along with strictly ecological and evolutionary considerations, but these other issues are beyond the scope of this report. Ecological oversight of planned introductions should be directed at promoting effectiveness while guarding against potential problems. The diversity of organisms that will be modified, functions that will be engineered, and environments that will receive altered organisms makes ecological risk evaluation complex. While we cannot now recommend the complete exemption of specific organisms or traits from regulatory oversight, we support and will continue to assist in the development of methods for scaling the level of oversight needed for individual cases according to objective, scientific criteria, with a goal of minimizing unnecessary regulatory burdens. In this report, we provide a preliminary set of specific criteria for the scaling of regulatory oversight. Genetically engineered organisms should be evaluated and regulated according to their biological properties (phenotypes), rather than according to the genetic techniques used to produce them. Nonetheless, because many novel combinations of properties can be achieved only by molecular and cellular techniques, products of these techniques may often be subjected to greater scrutiny than the products of traditional techniques. Although the capability to produce precise genetic alterations increases confidence that unintended changes in the genome have not occurred, precise genetic characterization does not ensure that all ecologically important aspects of the phenotype can be predicted for the environments into which an organism will be introduced. Many important scientific issues must be considered in evaluating the potential ecological consequences of the planned introduction of genetically engineered organisms into the environment. These include survival and reproduction of the introduced organism, interactions with other organisms in the environment, and effects of the introduced organism on ecosystem function. We encourage the use of small—scale field tests , when justified by previous laboratory and/or greenhouse studies, under conditions that minimize dispersal and under appropriate regulatory oversight. As the biotechnology industry develops, continuing regulatory oversight as well as long—term research and monitoring will be necessary for responsible risk management. Many engineered organisms will probably be less fit than the parent organism, although some important exceptions may arise. Even if an engineered trait reduces an organism's fitness only slightly, may generations may pass before the introduced organisms disappears completely due to decreased fitness. Such persistence is most probable when the turnover rate of populations is very slow. Natural selection will act on genetically engineered organisms, as it does on all others. Selection after the release of the transgenic organism will tend to increase fitness, not decrease it, by reducing the costs associated with the novel traits. If increases in fitness do occur, they will probably increase population growth rate and biological competitiveness, or produce other ecological effects that should be considered in assessing risks. Transfer of engineered genes from the modified organism to other organisms may occur through hybridization in higher organisms, or through conjugation, transduction, or transformation in microorganisms. If lateral transfer occurs, an engineered gene may persist in the natural environment even after the genetically engineered organism itself is no longer present. The available scientific evidence indicates that lateral transfer among microorganisms in nature is neither so rare that we can ignore its occurrence, nor so common that we can assume that barriers crossed by modern biotechnology are comparable to those constantly crossed in nature. Native species, as well as species newly introduced from distant habitats, may become pests. An organism engineered to prosper in a new habitat type, geographic area, or season is effectively an introduced organism in that it will probably enter into new biotic and abiotic interactions. Therefore, regulatory and risk assessment structures that rely on the distinction between ~`native" and ~`non—native" must be used with caution. Concern has frequently been expressed regarding the potential for genetically engineered organisms to displace resident species in the receiving community, particularly microbial species performing key functional roles such as nitrogen fixation of lignin decomposition. Because redundancy of function appears to be common in microbial communities, in many cases there would be little concern over microbial species displacement caused by an introduced transgenic organism. Ecological effects and the geographic ranges of organisms transcend political boundaries; we therefore consider it essential to promote and achieve international coordination of risk assessment and regulation of biotechnology. Special consideration must be given to the protection of rare genetic resources, such as the wild ancestors of domesticated species, and threatened gene pools of other wild species. We urge local, state, national, international cooperation in risk assessment and regulation of the ecological effects of the introduction of transgenic organisms. Evaluating the benefits and risks of biotechnology products requires expertise in many scientific disciplines including molecular biology, genetics, cell biology, evolutionary biology, physiology, population and community ecology, and ecosystem science. For society to realize the full benefits of biotechnology, interdisciplinary research and graduate training programs are needed to expand the expertise of the scientific community at large.