The Sanitary Phytosanitary Code (SPS) is an effort to reduce the technical barriers to trade created by phytosanitary regulations, or trade barriers related to plant and animal health. A key feature of SPS is risk assessment and risk management in determining appropriate quarantine actions which provide an acceptable level of risk to the importer and which can be justified on technical and trade terms. The major problem so far has been in quantifying the effects of phytosanitary regulations in a way that permits objective comparisons. The paper presents a conceptual model for quantifying quarantine related trade barriers. The model provides a basis for combining the two basic components of pest risk analysis, probability of establishment and economic effects, into a management framework and an objective measure. The model framework provides a systematic basis for defining and measuring acceptable risk and for justifying quarantine actions relative to acceptable risk.

The olive moth, Prays oleae Bernard, is an important pest of olives in the Mediterranean region. However, it is considered to be without economic importance in Alentejo. The aim of this work was to assess the losses due to the pest in the region. Data were also obtained on its life cycle and the possibility of using sexual traps for risk assessment was analysed. The experiments were carried out during 1993-1997 in some olive groves of the Cordovil, Galega and Verdeal varieties, near Moura. We concluded that in these experimental conditions, the damage caused by the carpophagous generation can be important as it represents about 45% and 50% of the harvested production respectively in 1993 and 1994. The correlation between trap catches and the percentage of infestation has been found to be quite high for antophagous generation in 1993 and for antophagous and carpophagous generations in 1994

Paper reviews the literature assessing the economic impacts of integrated pest management (IPM). Definitions of IPM are categorized as input- or outcome-oriented, and an outcome- oriented definition is recommended for public program assessment. The literature on economic impact assessment of IPM is divided according to focus on expected profit, profitability risk, environment, and health. Measuring diverse impacts on the environment and health poses a challenge, as does placing a value on those impacts. Evaluation of environment and health variables has been accomplished either by comparing individual attributes (multiple criteria approach) or else by constructing a weighted index (index approach), which may be measured in monetary or non- monetary terms. While partial budgeting represents an accepted measure of short-term expected profitability effects of IPM practices, the three other focal areas are much more costly and complicated to measure. For routine IPM project assessments, simple indicators of health and environmental impacts are needed that can be used to extrapolate upon valuation measures from prior, published studies.[author]

The unmitigated pest risk potential for the importation of Pinus and Abies logs from all states of Mexico into the United States was assessed by estimating the probability and consequences of establishment of representative insects and pathogens of concern. Twenty-two individual pest risk assessments were prepared for Pinus logs, twelve dealing with insects and ten with pathogens. Six individual assessments were prepared for Abies logs. The selected organisms were representative examples of insects and pathogens found on the bark, in the bark, and in the wood of Pinus or Abies logs. Among the insects and pathogens assessed for Mexican pines, eight (Dendroctonus mexicanus, Coptotermes crassus, Pterophylla beltrani, Ips bonanseai, Gnathotrichus perniciosus, Gnathotrichus nitidifrons, Fusarium subglutinans f. sp. pini, and Ophiostoma spp.) were rated a high risk potential. A moderate pest risk potential was assigned to nine other organisms or groups of organisms including Pineus spp., Lophocampa alternata, Hylesia frigida, Hypoderma spp., Lophodermella spp., Synanthedon cardinalis, Heterobasidion annosum, Sphaeropsis sapinea, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, Cronartium spp., and Peridermium spp. The pests of concern with a moderate or high pest risk potential for Abies logs include Lophocampa alternata, Scolytus mundus, S. aztecus, Pseudohylesinus variegatus, P. magnus, Ophiostoma abietinum, and Heterobasidion annosum. For those organisms of concern that are associated with Mexican Pinus and Abies logs, specific phytosanitary measures may be required to ensure the quarantine safety of proposed importations.

Insecticides, fungicides and herbicides are critical to successful crop production, but the development of pesticide resistance is a continual threat, especially to many of today's selective toxophores with specific binding sites. In order to manage resistance effectively, an assessment of genetic, ecological and operational risk factors is required, which must then be translated into meaningful local strategies that can be implemented through appropriate labelling of products and education of end users. Assessing resistance risk is a fundamental part of the development process for new molecules and is increasingly becoming a requirement of registration alongside toxicological and environmental risk data. Laboratory studies, including elucidation of target sites and metabolic degradation pathways, mutagenesis, computer models and cross-resistance tests, and field studies, including establishment of baseline sensitivities and evaluation of anti-resistance strategies, all play a part in such assessment. The challenge is then to devise management strategies which are relevant to local practice and actually reduce selection pressure to a point where product life is preserved. A preventative strategy should be in place at time of launch and for most pesticides, regional co-operation between all interested parties, of the kind advocated by the Resistance Action Committees of GCPF (Global Crop Protection Federation), increases the chance of success. Implementation of strategies via a universal product labelling system, already practised in some herbicide markets, is seen as a key way to improve product usage patterns. Monitoring resistance levels in field populations after product launch enables any fine tuning of tactics over time, for example in response to new technologies such as transgenic varieties being introduced. The limited successes in resistance management in Australia, Zimbabwe, Europe and USA are not so easily achieved in small-holder farming in developing countries, as exemplified by continuing problems in parts of India and China. Emphasis must be given to the education of growers and dealers in IRM and IPM, and improved extension services, in order to bring about a more sustainable approach to crop protection.