The benefits and risks of any particular GM crop depend on the interactions of its ecological functions and natural history with the agroecosystem and ecosystems within which it is embedded. These evolutionary and ecological factors must be considered when assessing GM crops. We argue that the assessment of GM crops should be broadened to include alternative agricultural practices, ecosystem management, and agricultural policy. Such an assessment would be facilitated by a clearer understanding of the indirect costs of agriculture and the ecological services that support it. The benefits of GM crops should be compared to those of other means of agricultural intensification such as organic farming, integrated pest management, and agricultural policy reform. A gradual and cautious approach to the use of GM crops that relies on a truly comprehensive risk assessment could allow people to reap substantial benefits from GM crops while mitigating their serious risks.

A Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP) was undertaken on the western corn rootworm (WCR) in 1997 –1998 to establish a permanent monitoring network, evaluate a containment and control program, test the feasibility and effectiveness of using a Slam ®-based area wide pest management program, develop training materials, and conduct a risk assessment of the potential for WCR spread and establishment in other areas of Europe. TCP countries were Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Hungary, and Romania. Bulgaria and Yugoslavia cooperated as unofficial TCP members. The data from the permanent monitoring network showed that the WCR had spread over an area of about 105,600 km 2 in Central Europe and that economic populations had developed on 14,000 km 2 in Yugoslavia through 1998. The containment and control trapping program, although designed to determine the feasibility of restricting the establishment of WCR beetles in an area, did not prove to be successful due to the number of WCR beetles encountered and their rapid movement into previously uninfested areas. The areawide pest management activity showed that the semiochemical Slam was highly efficacious against WCR beetles with residual activity for up to 2 weeks, thus making it a cost-effective alternative to other controls. Also, investigations showed that WCR will continue to spread and establish in other parts of Europe.

Different methods are used to study the incidence of genetically modified oilseed rape on honeybees, that depend on the type of transgene and on the transformation induced in the plant. Two examples are chosen to present risk assessment procedures. One deals with oilseed rape resistant to pest insects (by expressing protease inhibitors PI), the other concerns oilseed rape tolerant to an herbicide (glufosinate). The aim is to ensure the safety of honeybees. First, the occurrence of the transgene product in nectar and pollen is checked and the foraging behaviour on the plants is observed. Second, the effects of various concentrations, equal or higher than those expressed in the plant, is evaluated under laboratory conditions. Thus, acute and chronic toxicity, individual learning behaviour and life span of workers exposed to the PI is investigated. Experiments are also carried out to examine the effects on the colony activity and development. In addition, indirect effect related to secondary changes in plant signals cueing bees visits are examined. In the second case, the aim is to assess the risk for transgene dispersal in the environment, mediated by honeybees. It is unlikely that tolerance to herbicide has toxic effects, but a pleitropic effect of the transgene could affect the value and attractiveness of the plants. So, pollen and nectar production, flower size and density are evaluated and experiments are carried out in the field to study the foraging behaviour. In particular, the ability of honeybees to cross-visit transgenic and traditional oilseed rape or oilseed rape and weedy relatives is observed. Both types of studies show how complementary methods and collaborations between teams have been designed to study various aspects of the impact of genetic engineered oilseed rape on honeybees

Using soybean oil to control insect pests, delay bloom, and thin fruit in peach [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] production could reduce yield losses and fruit thinning costs compared to the current practice of using petroleum oil spray to control insect pests alone. The higher annual cost of soybean oil spray compared to petroleum oil spray was more than offset by higher average annual revenue from increased peach yields and lower thinning costs. At one location, soybean oil to delay bloom and thin fruit unambiguously reduced production risk. At another location, both mean and variance of returns were higher, but a lower coefficient of variation suggested lower relative risk for the soybean oil spray alternative. Risk resulting from the unanticipated influence of weather aud mismanagement on the effectiveness of soybean oil spray were not considered in this analysis. More research is needed to hone in on the optimum soybean oil spray rates under alternative environmental and management conditions.

Il faut souligner le faible niveau de dommages causés en 1999 par certains des principaux ravageurs de la forêt française: les défoliateurs des feuillus, la chenille processionnaire du Pin et les scolytes. Quelques attaques localement aiguës mais épisodiques par nature ont été en revanche signalées, notamment celle de la cécidomie de la courbure des aiguilles des Pins (Contarinia baeri) dans le Massif central et du lophyre du Pin (Diprion pini) en Normandie et dans le Centre. Un point est fait sur la progression vers le nord du chancre du Châtaignier, et l'extension du foyer de la cochenille du Pin maritime (Matsuccocus feytaudi) en Corse. La forte recrudescence actuelle du chancre du Mélèze (Lachnellula wilkommii) dans les zones de présence naturelle de cette essence pose des questions non résolues. Sont par ailleurs exposés une synthèse sur l'enquête nationale (1999) du DSF sur la rouille du Peuplier (Melampsora larici-populina), une rétrospective de la dernière pullulation de scolytes ayant suivi les chablis de 1990 (tempête Vivian) dans le Nord-Est de la France, l'intérêt d'une Analyse de Risque phytosanitaire (Pest Risk Assessment), ainsi que la situation et l'évolution de la nutrition minérale des arbres forestiers à l'échelle du territoire (réseau RENECOCOR) d'une part, et dans le Nord-Est d'autre part. Enfin, les réseaux de surveillance de la santé des forêts, et plus particulièrement le réseau européen de suivi des dommages forestiers, ont permis de prendre la mesure des dégâts causés par les tempêtes de décembre 1999

Il faut souligner le faible niveau de dommages causes en 1999 par certains des principaux ravageurs de la foret francaise: les defoliateurs des feuillus, la chenille processionnaire du Pin et les scolytes. Quelques attaques localement aigues mais episodiques par nature ont ete en revanche signalees, notamment celle de la cecidomie de la courbure des aiguilles des Pins (Contarinia baeri) dans le Massif central et du lophyre du Pin (Diprion pini) en Normandie et dans le Centre. Un point est fait sur la progression vers le nord du chancre du Chataignier, et l' extension du foyer de la cochenille du Pin maritime (Matsuccocus feytaudi) en Corse. La forte recrudescence actuelle du chancre du Meleze (Lachnellula wilkommii) dans les zones de presence naturelle de cette essence pose des questions non resolues. Sont par ailleurs exposes une synthese sur l' enquete nationale (1999) du DSF sur la rouille du Peuplier (Melampsora larici-populina), une retrospective de la derniere pullulation de scolytes ayant suivi les chablis de 1990 (tempete Vivian) dans le Nord-Est de la France, l' interet d' une Analyse de Risque phytosanitaire (Pest Risk Assessment), ainsi que la situation et l' evolution de la nutrition minerale des arbres forestiers a l' echelle du territoire (reseau RENECOCOR) d' une part, et dans le Nord-Est d' autre part. Enfin, les reseaux de surveillance de la sante des forets, et plus particulierement le reseau europeen de suivi des dommages forestiers, ont permis de prendre la mesure des degats causes par les tempetes de decembre 1999.

This study addresses the extent to which pest management systems can exploit semiochemicals (defined below) in ways acceptable to organic farming, and determines where the science base needs to be expanded to accommodate specific problems arising in an increasing organic farming sector. It considers whether current knowledge of semiochemical release from particular crop plants, herbs and wild plant species could be investigated further in relation to organic farming practice and identifies how strategies of multiple cropping, that exploit known semiochemical interactions, could be applied to key pest problems in organic production. Where such exploitation is not feasible, other strategies using semiochemicals including traps, extracts of natural products and nature-identical synthetic products are considered. Finally, general and specific directions in which research and development could facilitate greater penetration of the use of semiochemicals in crop protection for organic farming are identified. Semiochemicals are natural products that, by acting as signals, regulate interactions between organisms e.g. plants and insects. Once the semiochemical interactions between a pest and its host plant have been elucidated they can be exploited to regulate the pest population, providing an alternative control strategy to conventional toxicants. The choice of approach by which the semiochemicals are deployed relates to three options, i.e. from a natural plant source, from an extract or as a nature identical synthetic product. However, even where the most natural situations of mixed cropping are used, the scientific basis of the interaction must be established for robustness and sustainability of the approach. A complete understanding of the process allows a risk assessment to be made of any problems that might ensue when exploiting natural systems in different configurations from those encountered naturally. A major approach to using semiochemical based pest control is to exploit ways of repelling pests from crop plants and attracting them towards trap plantations. Deploying semiochemicals generated naturally by plants is consistent with organic farming practice, where a range of mixed cropping techniques are employed already, which ‘unconsciously’ utilise semiochemical effects. Thus, the acceptance and use of systems exploiting aspects of semiochemical deployment demonstrate an emerging role in organic farming practices. However, as emphasised before, a comprehensive knowledge of the semiochemical interactions that underpin these techniques is vital if they are to be exploited fully. Other pest control approaches compatible with organic farming, such as encouragement of beneficial species and the use of reflective surfaces in mulches, may not involve semiochemical effects, but could be exploited more beneficially by integration with semiochemical practices. Semiochemicals generated naturally by plants can be used to influence beneficial organisms as well as invertebrate pests. For example, plant defence chemicals, induced by pest or pathogen infestation, can affect the behaviour of pests and their natural enemies. Semiochemicals can be employed to maximise the impact of parasitic organisms that attack pest populations, for example in the management of refugia for maintaining and increasing populations of these beneficial organisms. In addition, the approach can be applied against other organisms antagonistic to agriculture besides invertebrate pests, for example in weed control, where signals interfering with weed germination can be exploited. Extracts of natural products provide semiochemicals in a form that is familiar and acceptable to organic farming practice, where plant extracts are already used as toxicants or as semiochemical antifeedants and repellents. However, often the scientific basis for use of these materials is limited, and therefore, exploitation is also limited and can be unreliable. By understanding the composition and the mechanism of activity of semiochemicals, natural product extracts can be improved by selection of the best sources of natural materials and appropriate processes of extraction and formulation. Many natural products, particularly pheromones (semiochemicals acting between members of the same species), can be synthesised as nature-identical and the synthetic forms are often indistinguishable from the natural form. Synthesis can be expensive, but where possible, starting materials should be obtained from natural renewable resources. Nature-identical synthetic pheromones are used widely in parts of the world, either deployed in traps for monitoring, mass trapping and lure and kill strategies or for direct pest control approaches such as mating disruption. In addition, manipulation of beneficial species with pheromones is being investigated and synthetic food-related attractants and oviposition attractants have also been developed for pests where pheromones are not available. Already some nature-identical synthetic semiochemicals have been accepted as compatible with organic farming practice. The registration of many sex and aggregation pheromones has been possible because they are nature-identical and are deployed away from the crop or on crop areas that are not consumed. In most cases, semiochemicals, deployed alone, are not sufficiently robust to control pest populations directly. They are most effective when incorporated into strategies, such as the ‘push-pull’ strategy, that are integrated with other forms of pest control, e.g. pathogens, parasitoids and predators, mechanical barriers and resistant plant varieties. The integration of semiochemical approaches with other methods of pest population reduction will help prevent the development of pest resistance to the overall strategy. Since the integrated strategy comprises a number of components that affect different aspects of pest behaviour and development each component can be relatively ineffective when compared to conventional pesticides. However, this has the advantage of not selecting efficiently for resistance to any component of the strategy and thus contributes to the sustainability of the approach. Recommendations 1) Develop a priority list of specific and general problems in organic production to be targeted by semiochemical methodologies in addition to known problems such as in carrot and lettuce production, aphids on a range of vegetable crops and for fruit pests. 2) Develop semiochemical based control methods suitable for 1) and for the targets already known. 3) Provide scientific input, where lacking, for 1 and 2. 4) Encourage greater diversification in organic cropping systems, including agroforestry, so as to exploit current knowledge of semiochemical based control and to pave the way for new interventions as the science develops. 5) Consider semiochemical attributes of non-crop plant inputs including mulches, weeds and multifunctional beneficial plants and the roles that they might play in organic systems. 6) Initiate organic plant breeding programmes, specifically to exploit natural semiochemical release where understood, for crop and companion plants.

To understand the potential role of forest products in household livelihoods, a study of the woodcraft industry in Zimbabwe was initiated. The woodcraft industry has increased steadily since the late 1980s. The factors driving the upsurge in the woodcraft industry are: (1) the increased demand by tourists; and (2) the need by rural households to find cash income sources. The structural adjustment programme, with one of its emphases being the decontrol of the currency, has probably played a key role in driving the rise in woodcraft production. Although all markets have a committee and all have some basic rules governing their operations, few rules are strictly enforced. There is also a lack of enforcement of the national legislation that governs the use of the tree resources. The local traditional rules governing resource use from the commons are also not strong. Given the problems in the national legislation and in the local rules, it is difficult to see how the resource can be managed on a sustainable basis. It appears that the benefits from the industry may not be substantial given the lack of interest in the market from outsiders, and the various elites who could monopolise the trade due to the lack of enforcement structures in place. In communal areas, where deforestation is advanced, the selective use of certain species for carving is likely to drive the species to local extinction. The carvers are likely to switch to different tree species to maintain their production levels. Major pests and diseases of natural and planted Indonesian forests have been reviewed, threats assessed and a bibliography compiled. Indonesia has about 96 million ha of natural forests, dominated by dipterocarps, and 4 million ha of forest plantations, About half the plantations are in Java, consisting of long-established species eg., Tectona grandis, and half in Sumatra and Kalimantan, mainly fast growing pulpwood species. Major plantation species include Tectona grandis, Pinus merkusii, Acacia mangium, etc. Only small-scale plantations exist for the other species reviewed e.g., Alstonia spp., Anthocephalus sp., etc. Occasional and unpredictable insect outbreaks have occurred in natural stands of, Plaquium sp, mangroves, etc., but plantations of teak, pine, mahogany and Paraserianthes falcatoria etc., are damaged by pests every year. In natural forests high host density appears to be a predisposing factor for pest build-up. Serious pests occur on Tectona grandis, Pinus merkusii, falcatoria and Swietenia macrophylla, with the most damaging being the Paraserianthes trunk borer, Xystrocera festiva. Disease problems are less significant than pests in the natural forests and no major disease outbreak has occurred in plantations, although many fungal diseases are prevalent in nurseries. No major pest or disease has been recorded on the minor plantation species, but their history is too short and planted areas too small to draw reliable conclusions on their susceptibility. There are indications of impending problems eg., root rot in Eucalyptus spp. and root and stem rot in Acacia mangium. There is also the risk of new pests in Acacia mangium, Gmelina arborea, Shorea spp. and Peronema sp. Research capacity in Indonesia is inadequate to meet the existing and future challenges and more collaboration between Government, universities and plantation companies is needed for pest and disease surveillance and research in the rapidly expanding forest plantations | Nair K.S.S., ed., 'Insect pests and diseases in Indonesian forest: an assessment of the major threats, research efforts and literature', Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), 2000