The risk posed by the wood-boring pest, Anoplophora glabripennis, to hardwood tree species in the EC was assessed using an internationally developed pest risk assessment scheme. The assessment reviewed information concerning the current distribution, biology and economic impact of A. glabripennis in Asia and North America together with recent European interceptions. Hosts grow across much of Europe and, using the computer program CLIMEX, southern regions of Europe were highlighted as areas where climate is most suitable for the pest's establishment. There is a significant risk that A. glabripennis could enter, establish and cause damage to several important forest, fruit, and amenity tree species in the EC. This risk analysis contributed to the decision to add A. glabripennis to the list of quarantine pests whose introduction and spread within all EC Member States is banned.

So far, genetic engineering of plants in the context of insect pest control has involved insertion of genes that code for toxins, and may be characterized as the incorporation of biopesticides into classical plant breeding. In the context of pesticide usage in pest control, natural enemies of herbivores have received increasing attention, because carnivorous arthropods are an important component of insect pest control. However, in plant breeding programmes, natural enemies of herbivores have largely been ignored, although there are many examples that show that plant breeding affects the effectiveness of biological control. Negative influences of modified plant characteristics on carnivorous arthropods may induce population growth of new, even more harmful pest species that had no pest status prior to the pesticide treatment. Sustainable pest management will only be possible when negative effects on non-target, beneficial arthropods are minimized. In this review, we summarize the effects of insect-resistant crops and insect-resistant transgenic crops, especially Bt crops, from a food web perspective. As food web components, we distinguish target herbivores, non-target herbivores, pollinators, parasitoids and predators. Below-ground organisms such as Collembola, nematodes and earthworms should also be included in risk assessment studies, but have received little attention. The toxins produced in Bt plants retain their toxicity when bound to the soil, so accumulation of these toxins is likely to occur. Earthworms ingest the bound toxins but are not affected by them. However, earthworms may function as intermediaries through which the toxins are passed on to other trophic levels. In studies where effects of insect-resistant (Bt) plants on natural enemies were considered, positive, negative and no effects have been found. So far, most studies have concentrated on natural enemies of target herbivores. However, Bt toxins are structurally rearranged when they bind to midgut receptors, so that they are likely to lose their toxicity inside target herbivores. What happens to the toxins in non-target herbivores, and whether these herbivores may act as intermediaries through which the toxins may be passed on to the natural enemies, remains to be studied.

The EPPO Standard PP 1/213(1) on resistance risk analysis is the basis for risk assessment within the authorisation process in Germany. Data for resistance risk analysis have to be provided by the applicant and risk-mitigation strategies prepared if necessary. The extent of data requirements and the intensity of the evaluation process depend mainly on the type of target organism, crop, mode of action of the active substance and the resistance history of the organism in combination with products of similar mode of action as the one being applied for. Because resistance risk is a very complicated issue during the authorisation of plant-protection products, intensive co-operation between applicants and regulators is essential prior to submission of the dossier, with due consideration of the amount of data necessary and, where required, the proposed resistance-management strategy.

Only few reports have been published on the reduction and recovery of native non-Apis bee populations, measured after temporary or permanent agrochemical pest control in North America. Small species were found to be the most sensitive. The assessment of pesticide toxicity and hazards to non-Apis bees has been practiced for about 50 years through various laboratory, semi-field, and field methods. Studies have been conducted mainly on three species: Nomia melanderi (alkali bee), Megachile rotundata (lucerne leafcutting bee) and Bombus terrestris (bumble bee). Toxicity tests performed in standardized conditions on adults and larvae showed that the intrinsic susceptibility of non-Apis bees measured by oral and topical LD50 or by LC50 varied to a great extent between species and also from Apis mellifera. Laboratory and semi-field tests were used to assess the risks of sprays, field-weathered residues, or systemic compounds in nectar and pollen. The effects of several organophosphates, pyrethroids, neonicotinoids and a carbamate are discussed. Sublethal effects of deltamethrin, fenvalerate, trichlorfon and imidacloprid are also investigated. It has been shown that biochemical data from studies on detoxification in M. rotundata did not agree with toxicological parameters and risk assessment in the field.

The purpose of this paper is to present the scientific information in the midst current debate of the benefits and risks involved in the planting of Bt-cotton in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. The public are questioning any risks to human health and biological diversity with the release of plants with artificial construct that contains genetic material from bacteria, viruses and other genetic parasites. The current evidence showed that there is no reason for such concerns on the potential for allergic reaction to cotton products or the possible increase in production of toxic compounds and likewise the use of antibiotic resistance marker-genes should not distress the public. The effects on the parasites, predator and soil-microbia are very sparse. The Bt-toxin genes are not pollen-transmitted as plastids genes in cotton are inherited by the maternal parent. Reduction in pesticide use and improvement in cotton productivity are the main benefit that may result from the use of Bt-cotton in the USA. However, the development of insect resistance to the Cry IA(c) insecticidal protein will cause to fail those benefits. Some regulatory and monitoring systems have to be established to maintain the long term use of Bt-cotton. In the face of scientific uncertainty in the use of transgenic plants, the Indonesian government follows pre-cautionary approaches, where risk assessment and risk management have to be carried out prior to the use of transgenic plants | Dalam makalah ini disajikan informasi ilmiah dengan adanya perdebatan mengenai manfaat dan risiko penanaman kapas-Bt di Sulawesi Selatan. Masyarakat mempertanyakan risiko kapas-Bt terhadap kesehatan manusia dan keanekaragaman hayati dengan pelepasan tanaman hasil konstruksi yang mengandung bahan-bahan genetik dari bakteria, virus serta parasit-parasit lainnya. Bukti-bukti menunjukkan bahwa kapas-Bt tidak berpotensi menyebabkan alergi atau menghasilkan bahan beracun, demikian juga penggunaan gen penanda yang menyebabkan ketahanan terhadap antibiotik tidak perlu dikuatirkan. Efeknya terhadap parasit-parasit, predator-predator dan mikroba tanah sangat kecil. Gen-gen penghasil toksin tersebut tidak tersebar melalui tepung sari, karena gen-gen plastid hanya dapat diwariskan melalui tetua betina. Manfaat utama penggunaan kapas-Bt di Amerika Serikat adalah pengurangan pemakaian insektisida dan peningkatan produktivitas. Berkembangnya resistensi serangga terhadap protein yang dihasilkan gen Cry IA(c) akan menggagalkan manfaat tersebut di atas. Untuk itu perlu pengaturan dan pemantauan untuk menjaga keberlanjutan penggunaan kapas-Bt. Menghadapi ketidakpastian ilmiah dalam pemanfaatan tanaman transgenik, pemerintah Indonesia menganut prinsip kehati-hatian yang mensyaratkan dilakukannya penilaian dan pengelolaan risiko sebelum penggunaan tanaman transgenik

The safety and efficacy of emamectin benzoate, administered in-feed to Atlantic salmon smolts, Salmo salar L., held in freshwater, was evaluated as a preventative treatment against sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis, following transfer of fish to seawater. In the safety study, salmon smolts held in freshwater were fed with diets containing emamectin benzoate at nominal doses of 0 (control), 50 (recommended dose) and 250 (5 x recommended dose) microgram kg(-1) fish day(-1) for 7 days (days 0-6). Actual dose rates, based on measured concentrations of emamectin benzoate in feed, differences in fish weight, and feed consumed, were 0, 54, and 272 microgram kg(-1) day(-1), respectively. On day 9, fish were transferred to seawater and observed for 14 days. No differences in feeding response, coordination, behaviour, gross and histological appearance were observed between control fish and those that received 54 microgram kg(-1) day(-1). Among smolts that received 272 microgram kg(-1) day(-1), approximately 50% exhibited darker coloration, and one fish (1%) exhibited uncoordinated swimming behaviour. No pathognomonic signs of emamectin benzoate toxicity were identified. In the efficacy study, smolts held in freshwater were fed an unmedicated ration (control group) or emamectin benzoate at 50 microgram kg(-1) day(-1) (treated group) for 7 days (days 0-6). On day 9, fish were re-distributed to eight seawater tanks, each holding 30 control and 30 treated fish. On days 28, 56, 77 and 109, respectively, control and treated fish in two tanks were challenged with L. salmonis copepodites. When lice in each group reached chalimus stage IV, fish were sampled and the numbers of lice were recorded. Fish challenged at day 109 were sampled for the second time when lice were at the adult stage. Efficacy was calculated as the reduction in the mean number of lice on treated fish relative to the mean on control fish. Treatment with emamectin benzoate resulted in an efficacy of 85.0-99.8% in fish challenged at days 28-77, from the start of treatment, and lice counts were significantly lower (P<0.001) on treated fish than on controls. When fish challenged at day 109 were sampled at day 128, efficacy was 44.3%, but survival of chalimus to adult lice on treated fish was lower, and at day 159, efficacy had increased to 73%. These results demonstrate that treatment of salmon smolts with emamectin benzoate in freshwater was well tolerated and highly effective in preventing sea lice infestation following transfer of fish to seawater.

Storage fungi and mites frequently cause injury of crops and contamination of crop agro-products (= "sensitive food ingredients") by allergens and toxins. This may have serious practical consequences since currently the food safety is one of the most important priorities of EU-agricultural policy. However, the risk of occurrence of biotic-hazard in various agricultural product and food ingredients is not equal since they differ in their sensitivity to infestation/contamination by various fungi- and mite-hazards. Therefore, the goal of our study was to identify and review the fungi-hazards connected with occurrence of 5 key-species of mite-hazards, in 4 kinds of "sensitive food ingredients" that include poppy, mustards, lettuce and wheat grain. Different numbers of fungal-hazards (wheat: 44, poppy: 37, mustard: 13, lettuce: 31) were isolated from the tested 4 kinds of crop agro-product. This indicates that their sensitivity to mite-associated fungal infestation/contamination increases in the following order: mustard, lettuce, poppy, and wheat. Mite-hazards differ in their vector-capacity of various fungi-hazards. Generally, predatory mites (i.e. Cheyletus spp.) represent lower risk than fungivorous and herbivorous species of mites (i.e. Acarus siro, Tyrophagus putrescentiae, Lepidoglyphus destructor, Caloglyphus rhizoglyphoides) in terms of vectoring fungi hazards. Many of the mites and fungi hazards rarely occurred independently. We therefore propose that (i) such pest-hazard-systems (i.e. fungi-mite-hazard-systems) should be called "associated-hazards" (ii) the new and specific approaches to risk assessment of "associated hazards" should be developed and implemented into practice.

Genetically modified (GM) corn with the gene for the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin (abbreviated Bt-corn) is resistant to the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis, and offers reduced pest control costs, increased yields, and improved product quality. Consequently, the area of cultivation of Bt-corn continues to expand in the USA. However, in Japan, GM crops must be confirmed as safe for consumers and the environment before import into Japan. The safety of GM crops to the environment is assessed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) in experiments examining cultural and reproductive characteristics, overwintering, weediness, production of harmful substances and crossing with wild relatives. Losey et al. (1999) recently reported that the larvae of the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus, fed on Bt-corn pollen dusted on the leaves of the, milkweed, Asclepias curassavica, showed lower survival rate, slower growth rate and reduced consumption of the leaves. This report had an impact around the world. But the authors did not study the importance of pollen density. So the extent of any environmental impacts by Bt-corn pollen dispersal remains unknown. Consequently, we started an urgent research project in 1999 to quantitatively assess the environmental impact of Bt-corn pollen on non-target organisms. We collected data for a risk assessment. Risk is evaluated as follows :Risk = Hazard * Exposure. Exposure means the probability of larval encounter with Bt-corn pollen deposited on leaves of host plants of a given distance from the edge of a cornfield. Hazard means the toxicity of Bt-corn pollen to the larvae of non-target lepidopterous species. Risk is thus the relationship between the density of Bt-corn pollen and the response of larvae to the pollen.

Tephritid fruit flies of the genus Ceratitis MacLeay (Dacinae: Ceratitidini) pose one of the greatest threats to Africa's horticultural industry. To curb their economic injury and prevent spread to new areas, it is vital that quarantine workers and developers of control tools and strategies can unambiguously identify the different species atany life age. However, the classification ofTephritidae to the species level based on morphology alone continues to be difficult. We have sought to utilize molecular markers, which are life-stage independent, stable and intrinsic to the organisms, for this purpose. Consequently, we screened 24 Medfly (Ceratitis capitata) microsatellite markers for cross-species amplification in C. rosa, C. fasciventris and C. cosyra. The presence or absence of each locus in each species was tested by PCR, and negative results confirmed by Southern analysis. Locus homology species was tested by PCR, and negative result confirmed by sequencing. Our findings indicate that is is possible to distinguish the different species examine using a combination of the medfly-bases primers. Of the 24 loci screene, 17 were common to all, five were absent in C. Cosyra, three were absent in C. Rosa, two were absent in C. Fasciventris, while on locus was present only in C. capitata. In addition, sequence results indicate that most of the medfly-based microsatellite markers could be useful for population genetic studies in the species tested, an aspect wich would facilitate the tracing of the geographical origin of colonist pest populations, assessment of their invasive potential and risk assessment. (Résumé d'auteur)

Little is known about genetic exchanges in natural populations of bacteria of the spore-forming Bacillus cereus group, because no population genetics studies have been performed with local sympatric populations. We isolated strains of Bacillus thuringiensis and B. cereus from small samples of soil collected at the same time from two separate geographical sites, one within the forest and the other at the edge of the forest. A total of 100 B. cereus and 98 B. thuringiensis strains were isolated and characterized by electrophoresis to determine allelic composition at nine enzymatic loci. We observed genetic differentiation between populations of B. cereus and B. thuringiensis. Populations of a given Bacillus species-B. thuringiensis or B. cereus-were genetically more similar to each other than to populations of the other Bacillus species. Hemolytic activity provided further evidence of this genetic divergence, which remained evident even if putative clones were removed from the data set. Our results suggest that the rate of gene flow was higher between strains of the same species, but that exchanges between B. cereus and B. thuringiensis were nonetheless possible. Linkage disequilibrium analysis revealed sufficient recombination for B. cereus populations to be considered panmictic units. In B. thuringiensis, the balance between clonal proliferation and recombination seemed to depend on location. Overall, our data indicate that it is not important for risk assessment purposes to determine whether B. cereus and B. thuringiensis belong to a single or two species. Assessment of the biosafety of pest control based on B. thuringiensis requires evaluation of the extent of genetic exchange between strains in realistic natural conditions.