The Panel on Plant Health conducted a pest risk assessment for the grapevine insect pest, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (an aphid species commonly known as phylloxera), in the European Union, identified risk reduction options and evaluated the effectiveness of the phytosanitary measures listed in Council Directive 2000/29/EC. Entry was assessed as potentially very likely for plants intended for planting (although the pathway is closed by Article 15 of Annex III) and very unlikely for fruit for consumption because transport and transfer would be very difficult, even though phylloxera has a moderate likelihood of association with the pathway. Establishment is very likely as the pest is already very widespread in the risk assessment area, occurring almost everywhere Vitis plants are present. Successful eradication is very unlikely and small populations can persist undetected in the soil. Spread within the EU is considered to be very likely because there are no effective barriers, it can disperse up to a few kilometres aided by the wind and it can readily be moved long distances with planting material. Grafting with resistant rootstocks throughout the EU ensures that the production of fruit and plants for planting is rarely affected by phylloxera infestations and, if so, only at a limited level. The Panel considers that the IIAII measures for D. vitifoliae do not assist in preventing entry and are ineffective in preventing spread because detection is so difficult. Restricting movements of plants for planting to cuttings grafted on resistant rootstocks, in combination with treatments (e.g. particularly fungicides and hot water treatments), was found to be the most effective risk reduction option. Limitations in the Cyprus protected zone regulations were identified.

Common voles (Microtus arvalis) are common small mammals in some European landscapes. They can be amajor rodent pest in European agriculture andthey are also a representative generic focal small herbivorousmammalspecies used in risk assessment for plant protection products. In this paper, common vole population dynamics, habitat and food preferences, pest potential and use of the common vole as a model small wild mammal species in the risk assessment process are reviewed. Common voles are a component of agroecosystems in many parts of Europe, inhabiting agricultural areas (secondary habitats) when the carrying capacity of primary grassland habitats is exceeded. Colonisation of secondary habitats occurs during multiannual outbreaks, when population sizes can exceed 1000 individuals ha−1. In such cases, in-crop common vole population control management has been practised to avoid significant crop damage. The species’ status as a crop pest, high fecundity, resilience to disturbance and intermittent colonisation of crop habitats are important characteristics that should be reflected in risk assessment. Based on the information provided in the scientific literature, it seems justified to modify elements of the current risk assessment scheme for plant protection products, including the use of realistic food intake rates, reduced assessment factors or the use of alternativee focal rodent species in particular European regions. Some of these adjustments are already being applied in some EU member states. Therefore, it seems reasonable consistently to apply such pragmatic and realistic approaches in risk assessments for plant protection products across the EU.

Common voles (Microtus arvalis) are common small mammals in some European landscapes. They can be a major rodent pest in European agriculture and they are also a representative generic focal small herbivorous mammal species used in risk assessment for plant protection products. In this paper, common vole population dynamics, habitat and food preferences, pest potential and use of the common vole as a model small wild mammal species in the risk assessment process are reviewed. Common voles are a component of agroecosystems in many parts of Europe, inhabiting agricultural areas (secondary habitats) when the carrying capacity of primary grassland habitats is exceeded. Colonisation of secondary habitats occurs during multiannual outbreaks, when population sizes can exceed 1000 individuals ha⁻¹. In such cases, in‐crop common vole population control management has been practised to avoid significant crop damage. The species' status as a crop pest, high fecundity, resilience to disturbance and intermittent colonisation of crop habitats are important characteristics that should be reflected in risk assessment. Based on the information provided in the scientific literature, it seems justified to modify elements of the current risk assessment scheme for plant protection products, including the use of realistic food intake rates, reduced assessment factors or the use of alternativee focal rodent species in particular European regions. Some of these adjustments are already being applied in some EU member states. Therefore, it seems reasonable consistently to apply such pragmatic and realistic approaches in risk assessments for plant protection products across the EU. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry

The Panel on Plant Health assessed the risk to plant health from Phytophthora fragariae for the European Union and evaluated the current EU legislation and possible risk reduction options. The pest is present in most areas of Europe except southern Mediterranean regions. Entry through the plants for planting, but not seeds, pathway, is assessed as a major pathway, with the probability of entry rated as unlikely and the uncertainty as high. The probability of establishment is likely in the absence of existing disease control practices with low uncertainty. The probability of spread in the absence of a scheme for the production of certified plants for planting is considered to be very likely. With certification, spread is considered to be unlikely to moderately likely, depending on the inclusion of testing for the pathogen as part of certification. These ratings have medium uncertainty. Potential impact is rated as minor with medium uncertainty. The Panel evaluated the effectiveness of current EU legislation regarding the introduction and spread of P. fragariae. According to the regulation the import of Fragaria plants for planting, other than seeds, is prohibited from specified countries, whereas for import of these plants from other countries and for movement of these plants within the EU special requirements with respect to P. fragariae must be fulfilled. If the current legislation specific to P. fragariae were removed, no major consequences would be expected, unless the industry simultaneously ceased its voluntary certification activity. This is largely because of the important level of protection afforded to the industry by the widely used certification schemes for Fragaria, which significantly reduce the risks of entry, establishment, spread and impact. Certification schemes for the movement of Fragaria plants for planting offer the greatest efficiency and feasibility and the least uncertainty, especially if effective detection is incorporated into them.

The Panel conducted a risk assessment of Phyllosticta citricarpa for the EU. P. citricarpa causes citrus black spot (CBS) and is absent from the EU. Under the scenario of absence of specific risk reduction options against P. citricarpa, the risk of entry of P. citricarpa was rated as likely for citrus plants for planting and citrus fruit with leaves, moderately likely for citrus fruit without leaves, unlikely for citrus leaves for cooking and very unlikely for Tahiti lime fruit without leaves. Establishment was rated as moderately likely because susceptible hosts are widely available and environmental conditions in many EU citrus-growing areas are suitable (with high uncertainty) for P. citricarpa ascospore production, dispersal and infection.  Current fungicide treatments will not prevent establishment. Environmental favourability is increased by the use of sprinkler and micro-sprinkler irrigation in some EU citrus-growing locations. Spread with trade was rated as moderately likely. Model results indicate that CBS epidemics are most likely to develop in EU citrus-growing areas in late summer to early autumn and in some locations also in late spring to early summer. CBS is expected to affect mainly lemons and late-maturing sweet orange and mandarin varieties, with moderate negative consequences for the production of fresh fruit, but with environmental impact of additional fungicide treatments. Negative consequences would be minor for early-maturing citrus varieties and minimal for citrus for processing. Uncertainty concerning the consequences is high, mainly because of the lack of data on critical climate response parameters for the pathogen but also because information on impact in areas at the limits of the current distribution is scarce. Since eradication and containment are difficult, phytosanitary measures should focus on preventing entry. Current phytosanitary measures are evaluated to be effective, with the exception of pest-free production sites.

Introduced species, particularly mammals, have caused significant damage to New Zealand's environment. In 1996 specific legislation was put in place to manage intentional introductions. In 2008 approval was sought to import 16 camels (Camelus dromedarius) into New Zealand for the purpose of establishing a trekking company. This article provides a summary of the quantitative assessment undertaken on the risks of importing camels. It was found that camels posed a low risk to public health but had a serious risk of establishing a wild population in New Zealand. The risk of camels becoming a pest was assessed as moderate. Overall, although the assessment ranked camels as a serious threat to New Zealand, this likely reflects the overly conservative nature of the assessment tool.

The current methods to assess the environmental impacts of plant pests differ in their approaches and there is a lack of the standardized procedures necessary to provide accurate and consistent results, demonstrating the complexity of developing a commonly accepted scheme for this purpose. By including both the structural and functional components of the environment threatened by invasive alien species (IAS), in particular plant pests, we propose an environmental risk assessment scheme that addresses this complexity. Structural components are investigated by evaluating the impacts of the plant pest on genetic, species and landscape diversity. Functional components are evaluated by estimating how plant pests modify ecosystem services in order to determine the extent to which an IAS changes the functional traits that influence ecosystem services. A scenario study at a defined spatial and temporal resolution is then used to explore how an IAS, as an exogenous driving force, may trigger modifications in the target environment. The method presented here provides a standardized approach to generate comparable and reproducible results for environmental risk assessment as a component of Pest Risk Analysis. The method enables the assessment of overall environmental risk which integrates the impacts on different components of the environment and their probabilities of occurrence. The application of the proposed scheme is illustrated by evaluating the environmental impacts of the invasive citrus long-horn beetle, Anoplophora chinensis.

International audience | The current methods to assess the environmental impacts of plant pests differ in their approaches and there is a lack of the standardized procedures necessary to provide accurate and consistent results, demonstrating the complexity of developing a commonly accepted scheme for this purpose. By including both the structural and functional components of the environment threatened by invasive alien species (IAS), in particular plant pests, we propose an environmental risk assessment scheme that addresses this complexity. Structural components are investigated by evaluating the impacts of the plant pest on genetic, species and landscape diversity. Functional components are evaluated by estimating how plant pests modify ecosystem services in order to determine the extent to which an IAS changes the functional traits that influence ecosystem services. A scenario study at a defined spatial and temporal resolution is then used to explore how an IAS, as an exogenous driving force, may trigger modifications in the target environment. The method presented here provides a standardized approach to generate comparable and reproducible results for environmental risk assessment as a component of Pest Risk Analysis. The method enables the assessment of overall environmental risk which integrates the impacts on different components of the environment and their probabilities of occurrence. The application of the proposed scheme is illustrated by evaluating the environmental impacts of the invasive citrus long-horn beetle, Anoplophora chinensis.

The trade in woody plants for planting (WP4P) is a major pathway for the introduction of alien tree pests and diseases into Europe. Pest risk analyses are important tools to prevent such introductions, but they target recognised pests, their hosts and commodities that are likely to vector them. Moreover, the perception of risk partially depends on expert judgement. Our aim was to provide an objective assessment of the likelihood of establishment and potential sources of invasive species. We analysed distribution data for 1009 invertebrate pests and pathogens of woody hosts in 344 regions. Countries and regions with similar pest assemblages were identified for each organism group using hierarchical cluster analysis and the likelihood of establishment of those species was calculated as the frequency of each species in countries within the cluster containing EU and EFTA countries (“EU countries”). Meaningful European clusters were formed for all organism groups, except oomycetes, and species were ranked by risk to each EU country. The non-EU regions with the most similar pest assemblages to the EU are the Balkan countries, Japan, Kazakhstan, New Zealand, Turkey, Ukraine, parts of China, Russia and the USA, and EPPO countries, indicating that these may be the origin of new pests and pathogens. The quality of the assessment of the likelihood of establishment depends on the quality of distribution data for pests and pathogens, but data quality varies between countries and organism groups and records are often historical. For example, the recent increase in trade and the similar climate in which WP4P for the EU market are grown in China indicates that this may be an important source of new invaders, but this was not suggested by our analysis. Moreover, most pest species in our database are recorded in one or more EU countries and the risk of these species primarily comes from within the EU. Future studies should therefore take the potential spread and establishment of these species in Europe, as well as recent changes in world trade patterns into account.

International audience | The trade in woody plants for planting (WP4P) is a major pathway for the introduction of alien tree pests and diseases into Europe. Pest risk analyses are important tools to prevent such introductions, but they target recognised pests, their hosts and commodities that are likely to vector them. Moreover, the perception of risk partially depends on expert judgement. Our aim was to provide an objective assessment of the likelihood of establishment and potential sources of invasive species. We analysed distribution data for 1009 invertebrate pests and pathogens of woody hosts in 344 regions. Countries and regions with similar pest assemblages were identified for each organism group using hierarchical cluster analysis and the likelihood of establishment of those species was calculated as the frequency of each species in countries within the cluster containing EU and EFTA countries ("EU countries"). Meaningful European clusters were formed for all organism groups, except oomycetes, and species were ranked by risk to each EU country. The non-EU regions with the most similar pest assemblages to the EU are the Balkan countries, Japan, Kazakhstan, New Zealand, Turkey, Ukraine, parts of China, Russia and the USA, and EPPO countries, indicating that these may be the origin of new pests and pathogens. The quality of the assessment of the likelihood of establishment depends on the quality of distribution data for pests and pathogens, but data quality varies between countries and organism groups and records are often historical. For example, the recent increase in trade and the similar climate in which WP4P for the EU market are grown in China indicates that this may be an important source of new invaders, but this was not suggested by our analysis. Moreover, most pest species in our database are recorded in one or more EU countries and the risk of these species primarily comes from within the EU. Future studies should therefore take the potential spread and establishment of these species in Europe, as well as recent changes in world trade patterns into account.