Changes in land cover and ecological stress in Borneo based on remote sensing and an ecological footprint method

Changes in land cover and ecological stressors are known to reflect the influences of human activities on regional environments and are also indicators of sustainable development. In this research, Borneo was selected as the study area. The data were sourced from Landsat TM image data obtained in 1990, 2000 and 2010, SRTM DEM data, and DMSP/OLS night-time satellite data, along with socioeconomic information, including regional population, biological resource consumption and energy consumption data. The vegetation brightness index (VBI) and the filtered normalized difference built-up index (FNDBI) are proposed, and the overall classification accuracy reached 87% when combined with decision tree classification and visual interpretation methods. Based on the traditional ecological footprint method, a dynamic calculation method for the production factor is proposed. The ecological footprint, ecological carrying capacity, and ecological deficit/surplus of Borneo in 1990, 2000, and 2010 were then calculated, and a method for creating the corresponding grid-based spatial distribution map was proposed. The effects of human activities on land cover and ecological stress in Borneo from 1990 to 2010 were analyzed in this study. The results showed that the tropical rainforests of Borneo decreased by 13% over two decades and dramatically changed to shrublands, plantations, and arable land areas. The ecological pressure increased from the central mountains to the coastal plains, and ecological deficits appeared in the coastal zones with altitudes less than 150 m in the West Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and Sabah regions, which indicated a trend of gradual expansion. Urban construction, plantations, logging, mining, forest fires, and other human activities have interfered with natural systems, and this has led to major pressures being placed on regional sustainable development and ecological security, as well as influencing the ecological stability of other global regions.