Foraging Patterns of Non-Territorial Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca): A Case of Successful Adaptation

The Optimal Foraging Theory predicts that, to maximize fitness, animals adapt their foraging strategy that provides the most benefit for the lowest cost, maximizing the net energy gained. While the diet of many breeding raptor populations is well known, studies on the foraging patterns of non-territorial birds of prey (floaters) are scarce. In this study, we examined the foraging pattern of non-territorial Eastern Imperial Eagle, scrutinizing different aspects of its feeding ecology and behavior. We built a simple model of the optimal foraging strategy of floater eagles including the success of foraging as a currency as well as environmental factors such as seasons, type of prey, habitat, foraging techniques, and eagle age as a limitation affecting the foraging efficiency of birds. We found that floaters focused their diet exclusively on European Souslik, accounting for almost half (44.2%) of the eagle&rsquo:s prey. Diet differences between floaters and breeders were due to higher Souslik and carrion consumption and lower Hedgehog predation by floater eagles. The diet diversity of breeding eagles (H = 3.297) was much higher than that of floaters (H = 1.748). Our model suggested that the foraging mode, habitat type, and season best explained the feeding success of non-territorial eagles (&Delta:AIC = 0.00, w = 0.42). Of all explanatory factors, &ldquo:Kleptoparasitism&rdquo: (&beta:2 = &minus:4.35), &ldquo:Rodents&rdquo: (&beta:2 = &minus:4.52), &ldquo:Pasture&rdquo: (&beta:2 = 2.96), &ldquo:Wheat&rdquo: (&beta:2 = 4.41), &ldquo:In the air&rdquo: (&beta:2 = 4.16), and &ldquo:Other habitats&rdquo: (&beta:2 = 4.17) had a pronounced effect. The factors &ldquo:Spring&ndash:summer season&rdquo: (&beta:2 = &minus:0.67) and &ldquo:European Souslik&rdquo: (&beta:2 = &minus:2.76) had a marginal effect in our models. Generally, the mean success rate of attack modes used by non-territorial eagles was 0.54 &plusmn: 0.50. Floaters successfully obtained food through: kleptoparasitism (43.10%), carrion feeding (24.14%), and high soar with vertical stoop (14.66%). Several important issues for the conservation of non-territorial Eastern Imperial Eagles arose from our research. The strong relation of floaters with the European Souslik calls for specific conservation measures aimed at the conservation of this type of prey and the restoration and appropriate management of its grassland habitats. The importance of the scavenging behavior of juvenile birds requires increased control of the use of poison baits and subsequent prosecution by state institutions. Protecting the most important temporary areas, improving institutional control against the use of poison baits, and intensifying awareness-raising campaigns among pigeon-fanciers and hunters are also of crucial importance for effective species conservation.