Investigating Spatial Heterogeneity Patterns and Coupling Coordination Effects of the Cultural Ecosystem Service Supply and Demand: A Case Study of Taiyuan City, China

As a vital bridge linking human well-being with ecological processes, cultural ecosystem services (CESs) play a pivotal role in understanding the equilibrium of social&ndash:ecological systems. However, the spatial supply&ndash:demand relationships of CESs remain underexplored in rapidly urbanizing regions. This study establishes an integrated framework by synthesizing multi-source geospatial data, socioeconomic indicators, and the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model to investigate the spatial dynamics of CESs in Taiyuan City. Key findings include the following: (1) A pronounced spatial heterogeneity in CES supply distribution, exhibiting a core-to-periphery diminishing gradient, with inverse correlations observed among different CES categories. (2) Accessibility, topographic features, and fractional vegetation cover emerged as primary drivers of spatial supply differentiation, while climatic factors and elevation exerted non-negligible influences on this Loess Plateau urban system. (3) Four spatial mismatch patterns were identified through the supply&ndash:demand analysis: high supply&ndash:high demand (38.1%), low supply&ndash:low demand (37.2%), low supply&ndash:high demand (13.6%), and high supply&ndash:low demand (10.9%). The coupling coordination degree of CESs in Taiyuan City indicated moderate coordination, with severe imbalances observed in urban&ndash:rural transitional zones. This study reveals nonlinear interactions between natural landscapes and anthropogenic factors in shaping CES spatial distributions, particularly the trade-offs between esthetic value and transportation constraints. By integrating big data and spatial modeling, this research advances CES quantification methodologies and provides actionable insights for optimizing green infrastructure, prioritizing ecological restoration, and balancing urban&ndash:rural CES provision. These outcomes address methodological gaps in coupled social&ndash:ecological system research while informing practical spatial governance strategies.