Household seed security: A case of maize and wheat seed systems in the mountains of Nepal

"Context Household seed security enhances agricultural productivity and strengthens climate resilience, yet persistent seed insecurity remains a critical challenge in Nepal despite intervention efforts. Notably, women play a significant role in seed systems across developing countries, yet their contributions are frequently marginalised because of entrenched gender norms and socio-cultural barriers. Objective This study examines seed security among maize and wheat-growing households in Nepal, analysing different social, economic, cultural, and spatial variables. It specifically investigates: (1) the current state of seed security for maize and wheat farmers, (2) the role of gender, ethnicity, geographic location, and other socioeconomic factors in shaping seed security, and (3) variations in these relationships across different seed security levels. Methodology Data were collected from 250 households across two municipalities during October–November 2021. Seed security was evaluated using the FAO's four-dimensional framework (availability, accessibility, varietal suitability, and quality). Gender-based household typologies (male-headed, female-headed, or jointly managed) were determined through Likert-scale assessments. Quantile regression analysis was employed to examine the effects of various contextual factors, including gender and ethnicity, on varying levels of seed security. Results and conclusion This study reveals distinct seed-sourcing patterns in Nepal's mountains: maize depends on formal markets (agrovets), while wheat relies on informal systems (saved seeds/local exchanges). Seed insecurity persists for both crops, shaped by divergent factors. Education and larger landholdings improve wheat seed security, whereas year-round food sufficiency enhances maize seed security. Paradoxically, access to formal market reduces wheat seed security, suggesting trade-offs. Experiences of historical seed insecurity have lasting negative effects, while informal seed saving practices build resilience, particularly at higher seed security levels. Gender analysis highlights women's central role in enhancing seed security, with Dalit households showing disproportionate vulnerability. In conclusion, findings highlight the need for crop-specific, context-sensitive interventions addressing systemic vulnerabilities in Nepal's mountain agri-food systems. Significance This research advances integrated seed sector development by demonstrating the need to recognise pluralistic seed systems and formulate crop-specific seed policies. The findings highlight how gender-inclusive approaches and formal-informal sector synergies can enhance seed security. "