The gendered nature of local agroecological knowledge remains poorly recognized. Gender biases in research and practice result in policies, programmes and interventions that are based on an incomplete understanding of local knowledge systems, and particularly of women's knowledge. This review of over 250 articles, books and chapters explores the complex, culturally specific and dynamic relationship between gender and agroecological knowledge, and underscores the central role both rural men and women play in managing biologically diverse, anthropogenic landscapes. Gender relations and norms, including the gender division of rights and responsibilities spatially, temporally and taskwise critically influence the acquisition and adaptation of local agroecological knowledge. Local knowledge varies across not only genders, but also other axes of social differentiation such as age and ethnicity, which intersect to shape the ways individuals, households and communities interact with their environment. Women and men may have different knowledge about the same or different things, and different ways of organizing and transmitting their knowledge. Although gendered spheres of knowledge are distinct, they are also shared, interwoven and complementary; and are neither fixed nor separable. Understanding local knowledge systems requires recognizing the distinctiveness, overlaps and interdependence of gendered knowledge repertoires. Current socio-economic trends are causing rapid shifts in local agroecological knowledge systems and resource management practices, and interrupting inter-generational knowledge transfers. Recognizing and valuing both women's and men's agroeocological knowledge(s) is crucial to preserve this (adaptive and evolving) body of knowledge, the cultures in which it is embedded and the agroecosystems it contributes to sustaining.

The gendered nature of local agroecological knowledge remains poorly recognized. Gender biases in research and practice result in policies, programmes and interventions that are based on an incomplete understanding of local knowledge systems, and particularly of women's knowledge. This review of over 250 articles, books and chapters explores the complex, culturally specific and dynamic relationship between gender and agroecological knowledge, and underscores the central role both rural men and women play in managing biologically diverse, anthropogenic landscapes. Gender relations and norms, including the gender division of rights and responsibilities spatially, temporally and taskwise critically influence the acquisition and adaptation of local agroecological knowledge. Local knowledge varies across not only genders, but also other axes of social differentiation such as age and ethnicity, which intersect to shape the ways individuals, households and communities interact with their environment. Women and men may have different knowledge about the same or different things, and different ways of organizing and transmitting their knowledge. Although gendered spheres of knowledge are distinct, they are also shared, interwoven and complementary; and are neither fixed nor separable. Understanding local knowledge systems requires recognizing the distinctiveness, overlaps and interdependence of gendered knowledge repertoires. Current socio-economic trends are causing rapid shifts in local agroecological knowledge systems and resource management practices, and interrupting inter-generational knowledge transfers. Recognizing and valuing both women's and men's agroeocological knowledge(s) is crucial to preserve this (adaptive and evolving) body of knowledge, the cultures in which it is embedded and the agroecosystems it contributes to sustaining.

Striga hermonthica is a major stress of maize in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), in collaboration with national scientists, have used team approach to investigate how best to solve the problem. Emphasis was on (i) establishing a reliable infestation technique for selecting resistant/tolerant genotypes, (ii) availability of appropriate germplasm and good sources of Striga resistance, (iii) use of appropriate breeding methods for incorporating resistance genes into adapted germplasm, and (iv) extensive multilocational evaluation to identify genotypes with stable performance. Host plant resistance, with additive-dominance model, has been the major control option for S. hermonthica infestation on maize. Recurrent selection, followed by hybridization of inbred lines developed from its products, have been used to identify high-yielding, stable hybrids for commercialization in SSA. In a study involving early-maturing tropical maize inbred lines, 24 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers significantly associated with grain yield, Striga damage, ears per plant, and ear aspect under Striga infestation were detected. In a quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping study involving extra-early white BC1S1 families obtained from TZEEI 29 (Striga-resistant) and TZEEI 23 (Striga susceptible) inbreds, 14 QTLs were identified for Striga resistance/tolerance traits. In a second QTL study involving the extra-early yellow F2:3 families derived from the Striga-resistant parent (TZEEI 79) and the susceptible parent (TZdEEI 11), 12 QTL were identified for 4 Striga resistance/tolerance traits. QTL identified in the studies would be invaluable for rapid introgression of Striga resistance genes into maize genotypes using markerassisted selection approaches after validation of QTL in inbreds.

Striga hermonthica is a major stress of maize in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), in collaboration with national scientists, have used team approach to investigate how best to solve the problem. Emphasis was on (i) establishing a reliable infestation technique for selecting resistant/tolerant genotypes, (ii) availability of appropriate germplasm and good sources of Striga resistance, (iii) use of appropriate breeding methods for incorporating resistance genes into adapted germplasm, and (iv) extensive multilocational evaluation to identify genotypes with stable performance. Host plant resistance, with additive-dominance model, has been the major control option for S. hermonthica infestation on maize. Recurrent selection, followed by hybridization of inbred lines developed from its products, have been used to identify high-yielding, stable hybrids for commercialization in SSA. In a study involving early-maturing tropical maize inbred lines, 24 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers significantly associated with grain yield, Striga damage, ears per plant, and ear aspect under Striga infestation were detected. In a quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping study involving extra-early white BC1S1 families obtained from TZEEI 29 (Striga-resistant) and TZEEI 23 (Striga susceptible) inbreds, 14 QTLs were identified for Striga resistance/tolerance traits. In a second QTL study involving the extra-early yellow F2:3 families derived from the Striga-resistant parent (TZEEI 79) and the susceptible parent (TZdEEI 11), 12 QTL were identified for 4 Striga resistance/tolerance traits. QTL identified in the studies would be invaluable for rapid introgression of Striga resistance genes into maize genotypes using marker-assisted selection approaches after validation of QTL in inbreds.

Terrestrial invertebrate species play a dominant role in the trophic dynamics of agricultural ecosystems. Subtle changes in the composition of communities and species interactions at different trophic levels, and role of ecosystem engineers can dramatically modify the effects of invertebrates on plant productivity in agricultural systems. The effect of climate change on relevant invertebrates in agricultural systems, and their potential to adapt or move is discussed. All terrestrial systems (including forestry and pasture) are considered, although the main focus is on crop production systems. Our treatise centres on whole organisms (as opposed to genetic information from invertebrates) that play key roles in agricultural systems. We start with an overview of current thinking on how climate change may affect invertebrates. Then, recognizing the great invertebrate biodiversity associated with agro-ecosystems, the review focuses on three key groups - soil invertebrates, biological control agents and pollinators. A variety of research gaps became apparent during the course of our review. Specific conclusions regarding the impact of climate change on particular elements of invertebrate genetic resources in agriculture are not possible yet. Existing evidence suggests that three general assumptions can be made. First, it is probable that climate change will disrupt to varying degrees the role and use of invertebrates in agriculture, especially sustainable agriculture, even though the precise nature of the disruptions is not yet known. Second, without intervention, these disruptions will result in production losses particularly in sustainable agriculture, even though the scale and extent of the losses is not yet known. Third, the extent of some of the losses will justify intervention to facilitate adaptations of the invertebrates, even though the methods with which to intervene and policies to facilitate this intervention are not yet in place.

[EN] Terrestrial invertebrate species play a dominant role in the trophic dynamics of agricultural ecosystems. Subtle changes in the composition of communities and species interactions at different trophic levels, and role of ecosystem engineers can dramatically modify the effects of invertebrates on plant productivity in agricultural systems. The effect of climate change on relevant invertebrates in agricultural systems, and their potential to adapt or move is discussed. All terrestrial systems (including forestry and pasture) are considered, although the main focus is on crop production systems. Our treatise centres on whole organisms (as opposed to genetic information from invertebrates) that play key roles in agricultural systems.Westart with an overview of current thinking on how climate change may affect invertebrates. Then, recognizing the great invertebrate biodiversity associated with agro-ecosystems, the review focuses on three key groups - soil invertebrates, biological control agents and pollinators. A variety of research gaps became apparent during the course of our review. Specific conclusions regarding the impact of climate change on particular elements of invertebrate genetic resources in agriculture are not possible yet. Existing evidence suggests that three general assumptions can be made. First, it is probable that climate change will disrupt to varying degrees the role and use of invertebrates in agriculture, especially sustainable agriculture, even though the precise nature of the disruptions is not yet known. Second, without intervention, these disruptions will result in production losses particularly in sustainable agriculture, even though the scale and extent of the losses is not yet known. Third, the extent of some of the losses will justify intervention to facilitate adaptations of the invertebrates, even though the methods with which to intervene and policies to facilitate this intervention are not yet in place. © 2013 CAB International. | This review is based in part on a report that the authors prepared for the Commission on Genetic Resources for Agriculture (CGRFA), at the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, on climate change and invertebrate genetic resources for food and agriculture [277]. We thank Kim-Anh Tempelman and colleagues at the CGRFA for their interest, support and encouragement in preparing that report. We also thank Peter S. Baker (CABI), John Kean (AgResearch Ltd, New Zealand), Graham Walker (The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited), and Craig Phillips (AgResearch Ltd, New Zealand), who contributed Case Studies as indicated; Joop van Lenteren (Wageningen University, The Netherlands), Peter Baker and several anonymous scientists of the CGRFA and FAO who reviewed parts of a draft of the report from which this review was derived; and Rebecca J Murphy (UK) and Dafydd Pilling (FAO) for editorial inputs to that report. | Peer Reviewed

Terrestrial invertebrate species play a dominant role in the trophic dynamics of agricultural ecosystems. Subtle changes in the composition of communities and species interactions at different trophic levels, and role of ecosystem engineers can dramatically modify the effects of invertebrates on plant productivity in agricultural systems. The effect of climate change on relevant invertebrates in agricultural systems, and their potential to adapt or move is discussed. All terrestrial systems (including forestry and pasture) are considered, although the main focus is on crop production systems. Our treatise centres on whole organisms (as opposed to genetic information from invertebrates) that play key roles in agricultural systems. We start with an overview of current thinking on how climate change may affect invertebrates. Then, recognizing the great invertebrate biodiversity associated with agro-ecosystems, the review focuses on three key groups - soil invertebrates, biological control agents and pollinators. A variety of research gaps became apparent during the course of our review. Specific conclusions regarding the impact of climate change on particular elements of invertebrate genetic resources in agriculture are not possible yet. Existing evidence suggests that three general assumptions can be made. First, it is probable that climate change will disrupt to varying degrees the role and use of invertebrates in agriculture, especially sustainable agriculture, even though the precise nature of the disruptions is not yet known. Second, without intervention, these disruptions will result in production losses particularly in sustainable agriculture, even though the scale and extent of the losses is not yet known. Third, the extent of some of the losses will justify intervention to facilitate adaptations of the invertebrates, even though the methods with which to intervene and policies to facilitate this intervention are not yet in place.

Remote sensing can be used to monitor and estimate, with reasonable correct answers, the yield, plant health, and coffee nutrition. Satellite-coupled sensors can obtain information about the spectral signature of the crop, on a time scale, in order to monitor and detect phenological changes. However, the accumulation of data obtained by orbital sensors makes it difficult to understand the relationship between the aspects of coffee. Thus, machine learning can perform data mining and meet the spectral signature patterns that constitute coffee behavior. This literature review sought the survey of research that used machine learning tools applied in digital image processing from satellites for coffee crop monitoring.

Remote sensing can be used to monitor and estimate, with reasonable correct answers, the yield, plant health, and coffee nutrition. Satellite-coupled sensors can obtain information about the spectral signature of the crop, on a time scale, in order to monitor and detect phenological changes. However, the accumulation of data obtained by orbital sensors makes it difficult to understand the relationship between the aspects of coffee. Thus, machine learning can perform data mining and meet the spectral signature patterns that constitute coffee behavior. This literature review sought the survey of research that used machine learning tools applied in digital image processing from satellites for coffee crop monitoring.

Image processing is currently gaining lots of attention at seed quality labs as well as grain quality labs for being nondestructive, faster, and more objective than traditional seed or grain analysis methods. While seed analysts focus on quality parameters that will ensure vigorous plants, grain analysts focus on parameters related to safety or grading of the grain using roughly the same methods. We observed that few techniques on image processing have been used and that image data source roughly shapes research work done. The main data sources are visible light, hyperspectral imaging in the infrared section, and X-ray. Laser speckle is not so common but was also included. We have also noted that ultrasound imaging and magnetic resonance are also used for analysis, but these data sources were left out because of little work found.

Image processing is currently gaining lots of attention at seed quality labs as well as grain quality labs for being nondestructive, faster, and more objective than traditional seed or grain analysis methods. While seed analysts focus on quality parameters that will ensure vigorous plants, grain analysts focus on parameters related to safety or grading of the grain using roughly the same methods. We observed that few techniques on image processing have been used and that image data source roughly shapes research work done. The main data sources are visible light, hyperspectral imaging in the infrared section, and X-ray. Laser speckle is not so common but was also included. We have also noted that ultrasound imaging and magnetic resonance are also used for analysis, but these data sources were left out because of little work found.

The nutritional quality of food produced by organic farming in comparison with conventional farming is a current topic that focuses interest and generates discussion. This paper presents a review of the relevant literature of comparative studies on organic and conventional food. In line with several reports on organic fruit and vegetable quality, the data obtained from a wide evaluation of Polish organic versus conventional crops are compared and discussed. This comparative study covered 33 neighbouring pairs of organic/conventional fields with six evaluated species. The data on dry matter, sugar, organic acids and polyphenols content are provided, along with a special respect to mineral content of fruit and vegetable juices. Some issues on the methodological aspects of such comparative studies are presented. | organic farming, food quality, mineral content, antioxidants | 5 | 1-10 | 8

The nutritional quality of food produced by organic farming in comparison with conventional farming is a current topic that focuses interest and generates discussion. This paper presents a review of the relevant literature of comparative studies on organic and conventional food. In line with several reports on organic fruit and vegetable quality, the data obtained from a wide evaluation of Polish organic versus conventional crops are compared and discussed. This comparative study covered 33 neighbouring pairs of organic/conventional fields with six evaluated species. The data on dry matter, sugar, organic acids and polyphenols content are provided, along with a special respect to mineral content of fruit and vegetable juices. Some issues on the methodological aspects of such comparative studies are presented.

Many causes have been proposed for the recent food crises that are currently afflicting the world, especially the developing countries. These causes include both the demand- and supply-side factors. One major cause identified was low productivity of agriculture, which has led to the inability of the sector to satisfy traditional and new demands for food. Yet, the food crisis offers an opportunity to revive food and agricultural systems and improve their productivity. This paper identifies various technological tools and options for addressing the food crisis through increased agricultural productivity. The present paper concludes that in order to tackle the problems of low productivity, effective organization, and management of national agricultural research and innovation systems is imperative. Equally important are the institutional innovations that will help close the food demand-supply gaps.

The amazing ability of epigenetic mechanisms to respond to a wide range of developmental and environmental signals in eukaryotes has earned them a lot of attention. Indeed, epigenetically regulated gene expression (variations in gene expression obtained without permanent alteration of the DNA sequence) is involved in differentiation, organogenesis and acclimation, and, as such, is hypothesized to participate in both phenotypic diversity and the plasticity of living organisms. While the importance of epigenetic mechanisms in the understanding of such vital processes is now widely recognized, many questions remain to be elucidated. Foremost is the point of transmission of epigenetic marks on (methylated cytosines) and around (modified histone tails) DNA, since research is still needed to explain the inheritance of an epigenetic character and which mechanisms are involved. The present review is aimed at illustrating key concepts when considering the exploitation of epigenetic changes for plant breeding, through both its environmentally responsive character and its potential heritability. In doing so, we have avoided developments relating to complex molecular pathways so as to give a glimpse to the interested but non-expert reader on the current debates and on the experimental challenges still ahead. (Résumé d'auteur)

The amazing ability of epigenetic mechanisms to respond to a wide range of developmental and environmental signals in eukaryotes has earned them a lot of attention. Indeed, epigenetically regulated gene expression (variations in gene expression obtained without permanent alteration of the DNA sequence) is involved in differentiation, organogenesis and acclimation, and, as such, is hypothesized to participate in both phenotypic diversity and the plasticity of living organisms. While the importance of epigenetic mechanisms in the understanding of such vital processes is now widely recognized, many questions remain to be elucidated. Foremost is the point of transmission of epigenetic marks on (methylated cytosines) and around (modified histone tails) DNA, since research is still needed to explain the inheritance of an epigenetic character and which mechanisms are involved. The present review is aimed at illustrating key concepts when considering the exploitation of epigenetic changes for plant breeding, through both its environmentally responsive character and its potential heritability. In doing so, we have avoided developments relating to complex molecular pathways so as to give a glimpse to the interested but non-expert reader on the current debates and on the experimental challenges still ahead.