Introduction: Several Mycoplasma species can cause severe diseases in ruminant hosts, some of which are the diseases listed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). The role of the Cervidae family in carrying and transmitting ruminant mycoplasma infections in Poland is unknown. Material and Methods: Antibody and antigen detection tests for the main mycoplasma species that can affect wild ruminants were performed on 237 samples (serum, nasal swab, bronchoalveolar lavage, and lung) collected from 161 animals during 2011-2014. The samples were obtained from a cull of healthy population of deer which included: 96 red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus), 19 fallow deer (Dama dama), and 46 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Results: Serological screening tests revealed positive reactions to Mycoplasma bovis in one sample and to Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae in three samples; however, these three samples were negative by immunoblotting. Other antibody and antigen detection tests demonstrated negative results. Conclusion: Currently wild cervids in Poland do not play a significant role in transmitting mycoplasma infections to domestic animals, but they remain a potential risk.

Introduction: The main goal of the study was to investigate the effect of KATP channel modulators on development of oxidative stress in the heart of rats showing different resistance to hypoxia.Material and Methods: The study has been performed on rats showing high- (HR) or low-resistance (LR) to hypoxia under modulators of ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channel opener pinacidil (0.06 mg/kg) and blocker glibenclamide (1 mg/kg) upon cobalt (Co) treatment (30 mg of cobalt chloride/kg b.w., 3 h). Changes in the oxidative stress parameters of the heart tissue, such as lipid peroxidation (LPO), level of oxidatively modified protein (OMP), and antioxidant defence system (superoxide dismutase - SOD, catalase -CAT, glutathione peroxidase - GPx, glutathione reductase - GR) as well as total antioxidant activity (TAA) were analysed.Results: Co treatment caused a significant decrease in SOD and CAT activity in the heart of LR rats and GPx activity in HR rats. It also led to a decrease in OMP level in the heart of rats with HR in comparison with controls.Conclusion: The obtained results suggest that individual resistance to hypoxia plays a crucial role in Co actions and provides evidence that the effects of KATP channel opener pinacidil in the heart are mediated through different pathways of the antioxidative system, depending on the individual resistance to hypoxia. Pinacidil exerts a protective effect on the heart tissue by preventing the LPO decrease and significantly reducing OMP levels, as well as increasing TTA in rats with LR.

Introduction: Ostrich characteristics include fast running, of which the probable enablers have been studied. Yet little research has taken place on one anatomical feature. It is mainly the special integuments on the ostrich foot which facilitate fast running on sand, because as point of direct sand contact they bear the whole weight and provide all the forward force. This study elucidates aspects of the integuments.Material and Methods: A stereo microscope, scanning electron microscope (SEM), and confocal scanning laser microscope were used to observe these integuments. Their surface structure was shown accurately in photographs. An SEM equipped with energy dispersive spectroscopy was used to check element contents of the upper and bottom areas and those on the lateral area of the 3ʳᵈ toe.Results: The content of some chemical elements on the upper area (Mg 2.04%, Si 0.18%, P 1.97%, Ca 0.59%, and S 0.69%) was higher than that of the bottom area (Mg 0.14%, Si 0.09%, P 0.10%, Ca 0.28%, and S 0.90%). Zinc was the particular element on the upper area, while sodium, chlorine, and potassium were the specific elements on the bottom area. The parts which must withstand different frictions contained different chemical compounds.Conclusion: The microscopic plane with layer-like structure and stripes may contribute to the wear-resistance of the papillae. The polygonal and prism structures are helpful to fix papillae in a firmer way.

Introduction: The study examined the concentration of total mercury and correlation coefficients between fish size or FCF (condition factor) and the content of Hg in muscle tissue of six freshwater fish: bream (Abramis brama L.), roach (Rutilus rutilus L.), whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus L.), vendace (Coregonus albula L.), perch (Perca fluviatilis L.), and pike (Esox lucius L.). Material and Methods: The fish were caught from the Lake Pluszne located in the Olsztyn Lake District (Poland). Mercury was analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry using Milestone DMA-80 (with dual-cell). Results: The content of the element in the muscles of the examined fish was as follows: pike (0.197 mg/kg) ≈ perch (0.173 mg/kg) > vendace (0.114 mg/kg) ≈ roach (0.095 mg/kg) and roach ≈ whitefish (0.065 mg/kg), and whitefish ≈ bream (0.042 mg/kg) (p ≤ 0.05). In all cases, the content of mercury correlated positively with the body weight and total length of the fish. Only the correlation coefficients between mercury concentration and weight or length of bream were slightly higher (0.979 and 0.977 respectively, p ≤ 0.001). The length and weight relationship of the fish was also determined. Conclusion: The results showed that the levels of mercury were lower than the maximum acceptable limit established by the Commission Regulation (EC) No 629/2008 of 2 July 2008. Thus, they are safe from consumer health point of view.

There are numerous biomarkers of central and peripheral nervous system damage described in human and veterinary medicine. Many of these are already used as tools in the diagnosis of human neurological disorders, and many are investigated in regard to their use in small and large animal veterinary medicine. The following review presents the current knowledge about the application of cell-type (glial fibrillary acidic protein, neurofilament subunit NF-H, myelin basic protein) and central nervous system specific proteins (S100B, neuron specific enolase, tau protein, alpha II spectrin, ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1, creatine kinase BB) present in the cerebrospinal fluid and/or serum of animals in the diagnosis of central or peripheral nervous system damage in veterinary medicine.

Introduction: In the present study, some of the commercial fish farms located in the Black Sea region of Turkey, were screened for bacteria between 2012 and 2014.Material and Methods: The bacterial agents isolated from fish were identified by classical biochemical tests and the rapid diagnostic tests (API 20 E and API 20 Strep). All strains were further identified by sequencing of the 16S rRNA genes. The strains were also investigated for resistance to different antimicrobials by the disc diffusion method. Antibiotic resistance genes, including tetracycline (B), β-lactam (ampC, blaTEM, blaPSE), florfenicol (floR), erythromycine (ereA, ereB), sulphonamide (sulI, sulII), and trimethoprim (dhfr1) genes, were determined by the PCR method.Results:Vibrio anguillarum, Vibrio fluvialis, Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida, Pseudomonas luteola, Lactococcus garvieae, Streptococcus iniae, Aeromonas hydrophila, and Yersinia ruckeri were isolated from marine and freshwater cultured fish. According to the results of disc diffusion, all isolates were sensitive to florfenicol, trimethoprim+sulfamethoxazole, oxitetracycline, and enrofloxacin, and resistant to lincomycin, penicillin G, and amoxicillin. Also, sulI, sulII, and floR resistance genes were detected in the bacteria.Conclusion: The results of the study open up the opportunity to perform further investigations which could determine the possible role of ARGs in fish pathogens.

Introduction: A real-time RT-PCR method for identification and quantification of porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV) strains in China was developed.Material and Methods: Based on the conserved sequence of the PEDV nucleocapsid (N) gene, a primer pair and probe were designed to establish a TaqMan-MGB real-time RT-PCR assay for quantitative detection of the virus. The sequence was cloned into the pMD18-T vector and a series of diluted recombinant plasmids were used to generate a standard curve with an R2 value of 0.999.Results: The developed quantitative PCR assay detected viral titres as low as 0.1 TCID₅₀ with high specificity and no cross-reaction with other porcine viruses (PoRV, TGEV, PRRSV, or CSFV). The intra-batch and inter-batch coefficients of variation were both less than 1%, which indicated good reproducibility. Thirty clinical diarrhoea samples obtained from pigs in Shanghai and Fujian were analysed using this quantitative PCR assay. Out of these samples, 93.3% were found to be PEDV positive.Conclusion: This approach is suitable for clinical sample identification and pathogenesis studies.

Introduction: The cytotoxicity of anthelmintic agent, albendazole (ABZ) and its two major metabolites, sulfoxide (ABZSO) and sulfone (ABZ-SO₂), on non-hepatic Balb/c 3T3 line, two hepatoma cell lines (FaO, HepG2), and isolated rat hepatocytes was investigated. Material and Methods: Cell cultures were exposed for 24, 48, and 72 h to eight concentrations of the compounds ranging from 0.05 to 100 μg/mL (ABZ) and from 0.78 to 100 μg/mL (ABZ-SO and ABZ-SO₂). Three different assays were applied in which various biochemical endpoints were assessed: lysosomal activity - neutral red uptake (NRU) assay, proliferation - total protein contents (TPC) assay and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage assay. Results: The most toxic was albendazole whose EC₅₀ values calculated from the concentration effect curves ranged from 0.2 to 0.5 μg/mL (Balb/c 3T3) and from 0.4 to 73.3 μg/mL (HepG2). Rat hepatoma line and isolated rat hepatocytes were less sensitive to the impact of ABZ. Toxic action expressed as EC₅₀ was recorded after 72 h exposure only in LDH release assay at 0.8 μg/mL and 9.7 μg/mL respectively. The toxicity of metabolites was much lower. The most sensitive to ABZ-SO were fibroblasts and EC₅₀₋₇₂ₕ values were similar in all three assays used, i.e. NRU (14.1 μg/mL), TPC (15.8 μg/mL), and LDH (20.9 μg/mL). In the case of ABZ-SO₂ the mean effective concentrations were the highest, and could be reached only in one LDH assay. These values (μg/mL) were as follows: 65.3 (FaO), 65.4 (HepG2), 75.8 (hepatocytes), and 77.4 (Balb/c 3T3). Conclusion: The differences in in vitro toxicity of albendazole depend on metabolic ability of the cellular models. Primary cultured rat hepatocytes represent a valuable tool to study the impact of biotransformation on the cytotoxicity of drugs.

Introduction: The aim of the study was to explore the effect of enrofloxacin on production of selected cytokines by porcine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs).Material and Methods: Twenty pigs (10 control and 10 experimental) were used in this research. Pigs from experimental group received enrofloxacin at therapeutic doses. Blood samples were collected before, during, and after treatment with enrofloxacin. PBMCs were incubated with or without lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Production of IL-6, IL-10, INF-γ, and TNF-α were determined by ELISA.Results: Administration of enrofloxacin to healthy pigs for 5 d induced a transient reduction of the PBMCs response to LPS in terms of IL-6 and TNF-α secretion. The concentration of IL-6 returned to the day 0 level shortly after treatment, while TNF-α production remained reduced for 10 d after the treatment. The production of IL-10 was not affected by enrofloxacin. The level of IFN-γ was below the detection limit of the tests.Conclusion: The results indicate that enrofloxacin administered in vivo in therapeutic doses has an immunomodulatory effect through its capacity to inhibit secretion of IL-6 and TNF-α by porcine PBMC stimulated by LPS.

The aim of this article was to evaluate the influence and effects of chosen bioaccumulative substances i.e. heavy metals, pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) on fish, as well as provide information on time trends and potential threat to human health. Chemical substances which pollute water may affect living organisms in two ways. First of all, large amounts of chemical substances may cause sudden death of a significant part of the population of farmed fish, without symptoms (i.e. during breakdown of factories or industrial sewage leaks). However, more frequently, chemical substances accumulate in tissues of living organisms affecting them chronically. Heavy metals, pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls are persistent substances with a long-lasting biodegradation process. In a water environment they usually accumulate in sediments, which makes them resistant to biodegradation processes induced by, e.g., the UV light. These substances enter the fish through direct consumption of contaminated water or by contact with skin and gills. Symptoms of intoxication with heavy metals, pesticides, and PCBs may vary and depend on the concentration and bioavailability of these substances, physicochemical parameters of water, and the fish itself.