The aim of this study was to investigate normal intraocular pressure (IOP) values of cattle, sheep, and goats with a rebound tonometer [TonoVet (TV)] and an applanation tonometer [Tono-Pen AVIA (TPA)] and to determine correction functions for the 2 devices. A total of 60 healthy cattle, sheep, and goats (20 of each) underwent slit-lamp biomicroscopy. Intraocular pressure (IOP) readings were taken from both eyes with the 2 different tonometers and statistically analyzed. For calibration purposes, the IOP was preset on each instrument at 5 to 60 mmHg using 5 mmHg increments in 10 bovine, 8 ovine, and 6 caprine freshly enucleated eyes. Readings were taken with both tonometers at each interval and compared to the manometrically controlled IOP (Mann-Whitney U-test, P ≤ 0.05; Bland-Altman plot, and regression analysis). The median IOP measurements (min to max) obtained with the TV were 23 mmHg (12 to 40 mmHg), 11 mmHg (7 to 20 mmHg), and 23 mmHg (9 to 37 mmHg) for cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively. Using the TPA, the median IOP measurements were 16 mmHg (8 to 27 mmHg), 10 mmHg (5 to 18 mmHg), and 13 mmHg (4 to 25 mmHg) for cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively. There were statistically significant differences between the readings taken with the TV and the TPA in all species (Wilcoxon-test, P ≤ 0.05). All measurements obtained with the TV and the TPA during the calibration procedure differed statistically significantly from the manometrically controlled IOP measurements (Mann-Whitney U-test, P ≤ 0.05). For both instruments, regression formulas were calculated to correct the measurements. Both tonometers can be used effectively to assess intraocular pressure in ruminants, using the specific regression formulas.

OBJECTIVE To compare the percentage of the C3-C7 vertebral canal occupied by the spinal cord in small-breed dogs with that in Doberman Pinschers and Great Danes with and without cervical spondylomyelopathy (CSM). ANIMALS 30 small-breed dogs (body weight, < 15 kg), 15 clinically normal Doberman Pinschers, 15 Doberman Pinschers with CSM, 15 clinically normal Great Danes, and 15 Great Danes with CSM. PROCEDURES In a retrospective study, sagittal and transverse T2-weighted MRI images of the cervical (C3 to C7) vertebral column obtained from dogs that met study criteria and were free of extensive abnormalities that could affect the spinal cord diameter between January 2005 and February 2015 were reviewed. The area and height of the vertebral column and spinal cord were measured at the cranial and caudal aspect of each vertebra from C3 to C7, and the percentage of the vertebral canal occupied by the spinal cord at each location was calculated and compared among groups of dogs. RESULTS Mean percentage of the vertebral canal occupied by the spinal cord was greatest for small-breed dogs and lowest for Great Danes, but did not differ between Doberman Pinschers and small-breed dogs at approximately half of the locations evaluated or between Doberman Pinschers with and without CSM or between Great Danes with and without CSM. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested that the percentage of the vertebral canal occupied by the spinal cord, although expected to increase with vertebral canal stenosis, may not have a primary role in the pathogenesis of CSM.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a single intravenous dose of alfaxalone on canine splenic volume. In 6 adult beagle dogs the splenic volume [mean ± standard error (SE)] was determined by computed tomography to be 0.17 ± 0.02 L before alfaxalone administration and 0.24 ± 0.02 L (P = 0.0091) and 0.23 ± 0.02 L (P = 0.0268) 15 and 30 min, respectively, after alfaxalone administration. Hematocrits (mean ± SE) obtained at the same times were, respectively, 46.3% ± 1.3%, 40.6% ± 1.3% (P = 0.0015), and 41.7% ± 1.3% (P = 0.0057). In conclusion, alfaxalone caused relaxation of the canine splenic capsule and an increase in the splenic volume, along with a decrease in the hematocrit in these dogs.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and vesicular stomatitis (VS) cause such similar clinical signs and lesions that laboratory tests are required to distinguish between infections caused by each virus. Using mouse anti-foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) 3B monoclonal or polyclonal anti-vesicular stomatitis virus-New Jersey (VSV-NJ) antibodies and recombinant FMDV 3ABC or VSV-NJ glycoprotein (G) antigens coated to MagPlex beads, competitive Luminex immunoassays (cLIAs) were developed for FMDV and VSV-NJ, respectively. The cLIAs successfully detected antibodies to FMDV 3ABC and VSV-NJ G in sera from infected animals. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity were 93% and 98%, respectively for FMDV and 93% and 95.4%, respectively for VSV-NJ. These cLIAs are potential alternatives for competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (cELISAs) and provide the opportunity for multiplexing to reduce time and the amount of serum required for testing.

OBJECTIVE To determine plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin and its active metabolite ciprofloxacin following single-dose SC administration to black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). ANIMALS 8 captive healthy 6-month-old sexually intact male black-tailed prairie dogs. PROCEDURES Enrofloxacin (20 mg/kg) was administered SC once to 6 prairie dogs and IV once to 2 prairie dogs. A blood sample was collected from each animal immediately before (0 hours) and 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, and 24 hours after drug administration to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin. Plasma enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin concentrations were quantified with ultraperformance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, and noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analysis was performed. RESULTS Enrofloxacin was biotransformed to ciprofloxacin in the prairie dogs used in the study. For total fluoroquinolones (enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin), the mean (range) of peak plasma concentration, time to maximum plasma concentration, and terminal half-life after SC administration were 4.90 μg/mL (3.44 to 6.08 μg/mL), 1.59 hours (0.5 to 2.00 hours), and 4.63 hours (4.02 to 5.20 hours), respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that administration of enrofloxacin (20 mg/kg, SC, q 24 h) in black-tailed prairie dogs may be appropriate for treatment of infections with bacteria for which the minimum inhibitory concentration of enrofloxacin is ≤ 0.5 μg/mL. However, clinical studies are needed to determine efficacy of such enrofloxacin treatment.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effect of 2 bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) sampling techniques and the use of N-butylscopolammonium bromide (NBB) on the quantity and quality of BAL fluid (BALF) samples obtained from horses with the summer pasture endophenotype of equine asthma. ANIMALS 8 horses with the summer pasture endophenotype of equine asthma. PROCEDURES BAL was performed bilaterally (right and left lung sites) with a flexible videoendoscope passed through the left or right nasal passage. During lavage of the first lung site, a BALF sample was collected by means of either gentle syringe aspiration or mechanical suction with a pressure-regulated wall-mounted suction pump. The endoscope was then maneuvered into the contralateral lung site, and lavage was performed with the alternate fluid retrieval technique. For each horse, BAL was performed bilaterally once with and once without premedication with NBB (21-day interval). The BALF samples retrieved were evaluated for volume, total cell count, differential cell count, RBC count, and total protein concentration. RESULTS Use of syringe aspiration significantly increased total BALF volume (mean volume increase, 40 mL [approx 7.5% yield]) and decreased total RBC count (mean decrease, 142 cells/μL), compared with use of mechanical suction. The BALF nucleated cell count and differential cell count did not differ between BAL procedures. Use of NBB had no effect on BALF retrieval. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that retrieval of BALF by syringe aspiration may increase yield and reduce barotrauma in horses at increased risk of bronchoconstriction and bronchiolar collapse. Further studies to determine the usefulness of NBB and other bronchodilators during BAL procedures in horses are warranted.

The aim of this study was to develop a droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) method to detect African swine fever virus (ASFV). The methods of ASFV real-time PCR and ddPCR were established and optimal reaction conditions were confirmed. Each method was evaluated for linearity, limit of detection, and specificity. The results indicated that ASFV ddPCR had a high degree of linearity (R2 ≥ 0.998) and specificity. The detection limit was 10 copies/reaction, which was approximately a 10-fold greater sensitivity than real-time PCR. This sensitive method could be used as an efficient molecular biology tool to diagnose ASFV, which is very important for preventing the spread of diseases across borders.

OBJECTIVE To compare the disposition of fentanyl citrate after a single IV injection in isoflurane-anesthetized red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). ANIMALS 6 adult red-tailed hawks and 6 adult Hispaniolan Amazon parrots. PROCEDURES Anesthesia was induced and maintained with isoflurane; intermittent positive-pressure ventilation was provided. The minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane was determined for each bird by use of the bracketing method and a supramaximal electrical stimulus. Fentanyl (20 μg/kg) was administered IV. Arterial (red-tailed hawks) or jugular venous (Hispaniolan Amazon parrots) blood samples were obtained immediately before and 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120, 180, 240, and 480 minutes (red-tailed hawks) and 1, 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 120, and 180 minutes (Hispaniolan Amazon parrots) after fentanyl administration. RESULTS A 3-compartment and a 2-compartment model best described fentanyl pharmacokinetics in red-tailed hawks and Hispaniolan Amazon parrots, respectively. Median apparent volume of the central compartment and volume of distribution at steady state were 222 mL/kg and 987 mL/kg, respectively, for the red-tailed hawks and 5,108 mL/kg and 13,079 mL/kg, respectively, for the Hispaniolan Amazon parrots. Median clearance and elimination half-life were 8.9 mL/min/kg and 90.22 minutes, respectively, for the red-tailed hawks and 198.8 mL/min/kg and 51.18 minutes, respectively, for the Hispaniolan Amazon parrots. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Pharmacokinetic results for fentanyl in isoflurane-anesthetized red-tailed hawks and Hispaniolan Amazon parrots indicated large differences and should strongly discourage extrapolation of doses between these 2 species.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate colonization of Streptococcus suis and Streptococcus parasuis on pig farms in Japan and to identify sources of infections. SAMPLE Saliva, feces, and vaginal swab samples from 84 healthy pigs of several growth stages on 4 farms and swab samples of feed troughs and water dispensers at those farms. PROCEDURES Samples were collected from August 2015 to June 2016. Two quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays (one for S suis and the other for S parasuis) were designed for use in the study. The novel qPCR assays were used in combination with previously described qPCR assays for S suis serotype 2 or 1/2 and total bacteria. Relative abundance of bacteria in each sample was evaluated. RESULTS Streptococcus suis was detected in all saliva samples and some of the other samples, whereas S parasuis was not detected in any of the samples, including saliva samples, which indicated a difference in colonization preference. The ratio of S suis to total bacteria in saliva appeared to increase with age of pigs. Streptococcus suis serotype 2 or 1/2 was detected in a few saliva samples and feed trough swab samples at 2 farms where S suis infections were prevalent. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Saliva, especially that of sows, appeared to be a reservoir and source of S suis infection for pigs. The qPCR assay described here may provide an effective way to monitor for S suis in live pigs, which could lead to effective disease control on pig farms.

OBJECTIVE To describe the torsional and axial compressive properties of tibiotarsal bones of red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis). SAMPLE 16 cadaveric tibiotarsal bones from 8 red-tailed hawks. PROCEDURES 1 tibiotarsal bone from each bird was randomly assigned to be tested in torsion, and the contralateral bone was tested in axial compression. Intact bones were monotonically loaded in either torsion (n = 8) or axial compression (8) to failure. Mechanical variables were derived from load-deformation curves. Fracture configurations were described. Effects of sex, limb side, and bone dimensions on mechanical properties were assessed with a mixed-model ANOVA. Correlations between equivalent torsional and compressive properties were determined. RESULTS Limb side and bone dimensions were not associated with any mechanical property. During compression tests, mean ultimate cumulative energy and postyield energy for female bones were significantly greater than those for male bones. All 8 bones developed a spiral diaphyseal fracture and a metaphyseal fissure or fracture during torsional tests. During compression tests, all bones developed a crushed metaphysis and a fissure or comminuted fracture of the diaphysis. Positive correlations were apparent between most yield and ultimate torsional and compressive properties. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The torsional and axial compressive properties of tibiotarsal bones described in this study can be used as a reference for investigations into fixation methods for tibiotarsal fractures in red-tailed hawks. Although the comminuted and spiral diaphyseal fractures induced in this study were consistent with those observed in clinical practice, the metaphyseal disruption observed was not and warrants further research.