COST ACTION 859 | International audience | Background, aim, and scope: The use of plants and associated microorganisms to remove, contain, inactivate, or degrade harmful environmental contaminants (generally termed phytoremediation) and to revitalize contaminated sites is gaining more and more attention. In this review, prerequisites for a successful remediation will be discussed. The performance of phytoremediation as an environmental remediation technology indeed depends on several factors including the extent of soil contamination, the availability and accessibility of contaminants for rhizosphere microorganisms and uptake into roots (bioavailability), and the ability of the plant and its associated microorganisms to intercept, absorb, accumulate, and/or degrade the contaminants. The main aim is to provide an overview of existing field experience in Europe concerning the use of plants and their associated microorganisms whether or not combined with amendments for the revitalization or remediation of contaminated soils and undeep groundwater. Contaminations with trace elements (except radionuclides) and organics will be considered. Because remediation with transgenic organisms is largely untested in the field, this topic is not covered in this review. Brief attention will be paid to the economical aspects, use, and processing of the biomass. Conclusions and perspectives: It is clear that in spite of a growing public and commercial interest and the success of several pilot studies and field scale applications more fundamental research still is needed to better exploit the metabolic diversity of the plants themselves, but also to better understand the complex interactions between contaminants, soil, plant roots, and microorganisms (bacteria and mycorrhiza) in the rhizosphere. Further, more data are still needed to quantify the underlying economics, as a support for public acceptance and last but not least to convince policy makers and stakeholders (who are not very familiar with such techniques).

Background, aim, and scope The use of plants and associated microorganisms to remove, contain, inactivate, or degrade harmful environmental contaminants (generally termed phytoremediation) and to revitalize contaminated sites is gaining more and more attention. In this review, prerequisites for a successful remediation will be discussed. The performance of phytoremediation as an environmental remediation technology indeed depends on several factors including the extent of soil contamination, the availability and accessibility of contaminants for rhizosphere microorganisms and uptake into roots (bioavailability), and the ability of the plant and its associated microorganisms to intercept, absorb, accumulate, and/or degrade the contaminants. The main aim is to provide an overview of existing field experience in Europe concerning the use of plants and their associated microorganisms whether or not combined with amendments for the revitalization or remediation of contaminated soils and undeep groundwater. Contaminations with trace elements (except radionuclides) and organics will be considered. Because remediation with transgenic organisms is largely untested in the field, this topic is not covered in this review. Brief attention will be paid to the economical aspects, use, and processing of the biomass. Conclusions and perspectives It is clear that in spite of a growing public and commercial interest and the success of several pilot studies and field scale applications more fundamental research still is needed to better exploit the metabolic diversity of the plants themselves, but also to better understand the complex interactions between contaminants, soil, plant roots, and microorganisms (bacteria and mycorrhiza) in the rhizosphere. Further, more data are still needed to quantify the underlying economics, as a support for public acceptance and last but not least to convince policy makers and stakeholders (who are not very familiar with such techniques).

International audience | Background, aim and scope Agricultural landscapes comprise cultivated fields and semi-natural areas. Biological components of these compartments such as weeds, insect pests and pathogenic fungi can disperse sometimes over very large distances, colonise new habitats via insect flight, spores, pollen or seeds and are responsible for losses in crop yield (e.g. weeds, pathogens) and biodiversity (e.g. invasive weeds). The spatiotemporal dynamics of these biological components interact with crop locations, successions and management as well as the location and management of semi-natural areas such as roadverges. The objective of this investigation was to establish a modelling and simulation methodology for describing, analysing and predicting spatiotemporal dynamics and genetics of biological components of agricultural landscapes. The ultimate aim of the models was to evaluate and propose innovative cropping systems adapted to particular agricultural concerns. The method was applied to oilseed rape (OSR) volunteers playing a key role for the coexistence of genetically modified (GM) and non-GM oilseed rape crops, where the adventitious presence of GM seeds in non-GM harvests (AGMP) could result in financial losses for farmers and cooperatives. Material and methods A multi-year, spatially explicit model was built, using field patterns, climate, cropping systems and OSR varieties as input variables, focusing on processes and cultivation techniques crucial for plant densities and pollen flow. The sensitivity of the model to input variables was analysed to identify the major cropping factors. These should be modified first when searching for solutions limiting gene flow. The sensitivity to model processes and species life-traits were analysed to facilitate the future adaptation of the model to other species. The model was evaluated by comparing its simulations to independent field observations to determine its domain of validity and prediction error. Results The cropping system study determined contrasted farm types, simulated the current situation and tested a large range of modifications compatible with each farm to identify solutions for reducing the AGMP. The landscape study simulated gene flow in a large number of actual and virtual field patterns, four combinations of regional OSR and GM proportions and three contrasted cropping systems. The analysis of the AGMP rate at the landscape level determined a maximum acceptable GM OSR area for the different cropping systems, depending on the regional OSR volunteer infestation. The analysis at the field level determined minimum distances between GM and non-GM crops, again for different cropping systems and volunteer infestations. Discussion The main challenge in building spatially explicit models of the effects of cropping systems and landscape patterns on species dynamics and gene flow is to determine the spatial extent, the time scale, the major processes and the degree of mechanistic description to include in the model, depending on the species characteristics and the model objective. Conclusions These models can be used to study the effects of cropping systems and landscape patterns over a large range of situations. The interactions between the two aspects make it impossible to extrapolate conclusions from individual studies to other cases. The advantage of the present method was to produce conclusions for several contrasted farm types and to establish recommendations valid for a large range of situations by testing numerous landscapes with contrasted cropping systems. Depending on the level of investigation (region or field), these recommendations concern different decision-makers, either farmers and technical advisors or cooperatives and public decision-makers. Recommendations and perspectives The present simulation study showed that gene flow between coexisting GM and non-GM varieties is inevitable. The management of OSR volunteers is crucial for containing gene flow, and the cropping system study identified solutions for reducing these volunteers and ferals in and outside fields. Only if these are controlled can additional measures such as isolation distances between GM and non-GM crops or limiting the proportion of the region grown with GM OSR be efficient. In addition, particular OSR varieties contribute to limit gene flow. The technical, organisational and financial feasibility of the proposed measures remains to be evaluated by a multi-disciplinary team.

Background, aim and scope Agricultural landscapes comprise cultivated fields and semi-natural areas. Biological components of these compartments such as weeds, insect pests and pathogenic fungi can disperse sometimes over very large distances, colonise new habitats via insect flight, spores, pollen or seeds and are responsible for losses in crop yield (e.g. weeds, pathogens) and biodiversity (e.g. invasive weeds). The spatiotemporal dynamics of these biological components interact with crop locations, successions and management as well as the location and management of semi-natural areas such as roadverges. The objective of this investigation was to establish a modelling and simulation methodology for describing, analysing and predicting spatiotemporal dynamics and genetics of biological components of agricultural landscapes. The ultimate aim of the models was to evaluate and propose innovative cropping systems adapted to particular agricultural concerns. The method was applied to oilseed rape (OSR) volunteers playing a key role for the coexistence of genetically modified (GM) and non-GM oilseed rape crops, where the adventitious presence of GM seeds in non-GM harvests (AGMP) could result in financial losses for farmers and cooperatives. Material and methods A multi-year, spatially explicit model was built, using field patterns, climate, cropping systems and OSR varieties as input variables, focusing on processes and cultivation techniques crucial for plant densities and pollen flow. The sensitivity of the model to input variables was analysed to identify the major cropping factors. These should be modified first when searching for solutions limiting gene flow. The sensitivity to model processes and species life-traits were analysed to facilitate the future adaptation of the model to other species. The model was evaluated by comparing its simulations to independent field observations to determine its domain of validity and prediction error. Results The cropping system study determined contrasted farm types, simulated the current situation and tested a large range of modifications compatible with each farm to identify solutions for reducing the AGMP. The landscape study simulated gene flow in a large number of actual and virtual field patterns, four combinations of regional OSR and GM proportions and three contrasted cropping systems. The analysis of the AGMP rate at the landscape level determined a maximum acceptable GM OSR area for the different cropping systems, depending on the regional OSR volunteer infestation. The analysis at the field level determined minimum distances between GM and non-GM crops, again for different cropping systems and volunteer infestations. Discussion The main challenge in building spatially explicit models of the effects of cropping systems and landscape patterns on species dynamics and gene flow is to determine the spatial extent, the time scale, the major processes and the degree of mechanistic description to include in the model, depending on the species characteristics and the model objective. Conclusions These models can be used to study the effects of cropping systems and landscape patterns over a large range of situations. The interactions between the two aspects make it impossible to extrapolate conclusions from individual studies to other cases. The advantage of the present method was to produce conclusions for several contrasted farm types and to establish recommendations valid for a large range of situations by testing numerous landscapes with contrasted cropping systems. Depending on the level of investigation (region or field), these recommendations concern different decision-makers, either farmers and technical advisors or cooperatives and public decision-makers. Recommendations and perspectives The present simulation study showed that gene flow between coexisting GM and non-GM varieties is inevitable. The management of OSR volunteers is crucial for containing gene flow, and the cropping system study identified solutions for reducing these volunteers and ferals in and outside fields. Only if these are controlled can additional measures such as isolation distances between GM and non-GM crops or limiting the proportion of the region grown with GM OSR be efficient. In addition, particular OSR varieties contribute to limit gene flow. The technical, organisational and financial feasibility of the proposed measures remains to be evaluated by a multi-disciplinary team.

COST ACTION 859 | International audience | PURPOSE: The term "phytotechnologies" refers to the application of science and engineering to provide solutions involving plants, including phytoremediation options using plants and associated microbes to remediate environmental compartments contaminated by trace elements (TE) and organic xenobiotics (OX). An extended knowledge of the uptake, translocation, storage, and detoxification mechanisms in plants, of the interactions with microorganisms, and of the use of "omic" technologies (functional genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics), combined with genetic analysis and plant improvement, is essential to understand the fate of contaminants in plants and food, nonfood and technical crops. The integration of physicochemical and biological understanding allows the optimization of these properties of plants, making phytotechnologies more economically and socially attractive, decreasing the level and transfer of contaminants along the food chain and augmenting the content of essential minerals in food crops. This review will disseminate experience gained between 2004 and 2009 by three working groups of COST Action 859 on the uptake, detoxification, and sequestration of pollutants by plants and consequences for food safety. Gaps between scientific approaches and lack of understanding are examined to suggest further research and to clarify the current state-of-the-art for potential end-users of such green options. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES: Phytotechnologies potentially offer efficient and environmentally friendly solutions for cleanup of contaminated soil and water, improvement of food safety, carbon sequestration, and development of renewable energy sources, all of which contribute to sustainable land use management. Information has been gained at more realistic exposure levels mainly on Cd, Zn, Ni, As, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and herbicides with less on other contaminants. A main goal is a better understanding, at the physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels, of mechanisms and their regulation related to uptake-exclusion, apoplastic barriers, xylem loading, efflux-influx of contaminants, root-to-shoot transfer, concentration and chemical speciation in xylem/phloem, storage, detoxification, and stress tolerance for plants and associated microbes exposed to contaminants (TE and OX). All remain insufficiently understood especially in the case of multiple-element and mixed-mode pollution. Research must extend from model species to plants of economic importance and include interactions between plants and microorganisms. It remains a major challenge to create, develop, and scale up phytotechnologies to market level and to successfully deploy these to ameliorate the environment and human health

Purpose The term “phytotechnologies” refers to the application of science and engineering to provide solutions involving plants, including phytoremediation options using plants and associated microbes to remediate environmental compartments contaminated by trace elements (TE) and organic xenobiotics (OX). An extended knowledge of the uptake, translocation, storage, and detoxification mechanisms in plants, of the interactions with microorganisms, and of the use of “omic” technologies (functional genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics), combined with genetic analysis and plant improvement, is essential to understand the fate of contaminants in plants and food, nonfood and technical crops. The integration of physicochemical and biological understanding allows the optimization of these properties of plants, making phytotechnologies more economically and socially attractive, decreasing the level and transfer of contaminants along the food chain and augmenting the content of essential minerals in food crops. This review will disseminate experience gained between 2004 and 2009 by three working groups of COST Action 859 on the uptake, detoxification, and sequestration of pollutants by plants and consequences for food safety. Gaps between scientific approaches and lack of understanding are examined to suggest further research and to clarify the current state-of-the-art for potential end-users of such green options. Conclusion and perspectives Phytotechnologies potentially offer efficient and environmentally friendly solutions for cleanup of contaminated soil and water, improvement of food safety, carbon sequestration, and development of renewable energy sources, all of which contribute to sustainable land use management. Information has been gained at more realistic exposure levels mainly on Cd, Zn, Ni, As, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and herbicides with less on other contaminants. A main goal is a better understanding, at the physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels, of mechanisms and their regulation related to uptake-exclusion, apoplastic barriers, xylem loading, efflux-influx of contaminants, root-to-shoot transfer, concentration and chemical speciation in xylem/phloem, storage, detoxification, and stress tolerance for plants and associated microbes exposed to contaminants (TE and OX). All remain insufficiently understood especially in the case of multiple-element and mixed-mode pollution. Research must extend from model species to plants of economic importance and include interactions between plants and microorganisms. It remains a major challenge to create, develop, and scale up phytotechnologies to market level and to successfully deploy these to ameliorate the environment and human health.