Hunting intensity alters movement behaviour of white-tailed deer

Recreational hunters have largely replaced natural predators of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) across much of North America; thereby, providing the greatest form of risk (both direct and indirect) to survival. On a 1861-ha property in Oklahoma, USA, we evaluated how controlled hunting influenced movement behaviour (using movement rate [m/h] and relative displacement index [%]) of 37 adult (≥2.5 years) male deer at three risk treatment levels (i.e., control=no risk; low-risk=1 hunter/101ha; and high-risk=1 hunter/30ha), two temporal periods of risk (i.e., diurnal [06:00–18:00] and nocturnal [18:00–06:00]), and across time (36 days); time was modelled as a continuous variable that covered five risk exposure periods (risk present or absent in brackets; i.e., pre-season [absent], scout [present], pre-hunt [absent], hunt [present], and post-hunt [absent]). Movement rate (m/h) decreased over time for all risk treatment levels and temporal period of risks; however, the magnitude (i.e., slope) of decrease varied across treatments. The magnitude of decrease in movement rate was similar for control and low risk treatments during diurnal and nocturnal periods, but was different between low and high risk, and high risk and control treatments. Relative displacement (%) of deer was greatest at the start of the study, decreasing during the study finally resulting in displacement values being three times less after hunting season. Deer responded to the presence of hunters on the landscape by adapting movement strategies both spatially and temporally to avoid potential contact with hunters. During the study, deer reduced movements and used smaller areas more intensively, as indicated by the relative displacement index. Reducing movement or space use may lead to lower detection of deer by hunters, thus increasing the probability of survival through reduced harvest. Understanding deer behavioural responses to hunters (and at different levels of risk) could be used to facilitate or reduce harvest based on population management objectives.