Repellent and Attractive Effects of α-, β-, and Dihydro-β- Ionone to Generalist and Specialist Herbivores

In plants, the oxidative cleavage of carotenoid substrates produces volatile apocarotenoids, including α-ionone, β-ionone, and dihydro-β-ionone, compounds that are important in herbivore-plant communication. For example, β-ionone is part of an induced defense in canola, Brassica napus, and is released following wounding by herbivores. The objectives of the research were to evaluate whether these volatile compounds would: 1) be released in higher quantities from plants through the over-expression of the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase1 (CCD1) gene and 2) cause herbivores to be repelled or attracted to over-expressing plants relative to the wild-type. In vivo dynamic headspace collection of volatiles coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry was used to determine volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the headspace of the Arabidopsis thaliana ecotype Columbia-0 (L.) over-expressing the AtCCD1 gene. The analytical method allowed the detection of β-ionone in the Arabidopsis headspace where emission rates ranged between 2 and 5-fold higher compared to the wild type, thus corroborating the in vivo enhancement of gene expression. A two chamber choice test between wild type and AtCCD1 plants revealed that crucifer flea beetle Phyllotreta cruciferae (Goeze) adults were repelled by the AtCCD1 plants with the highest transcription and β-ionone levels. α-Ionone and dihydro-β-ionone were not found in the headspace analysis, but solutions of the three compounds were tested in the concentration range of β-ionone found in the Arabidopsis headspace (0.05 to 0.5 ng/μl) in order to assess their biological activity with crucifer flea beetle, two spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae (Koch), and silverleaf whiteflies Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius). Choice bioassays demonstrated that β-ionone has a strong repellent effect toward both the flea beetle and the spider mite, and significant oviposition deterrence to whiteflies. In contrast, dihydro-β-ionone had attractant properties, especially to the crucifer flea beetle, while α-ionone did not show any significant activity. These findings demonstrate how regulating genes of the carotenoid pathway can increase herbivore deterrent volatiles, a novel tool for insect pest management.