Reviewing changes in mangrove land use over the decades in Thailand: Current responses and challenges

After a decline from 367,900 ha to 160,000 ha between 1961 and 1996, there has been a notable recovery of mangroves in Thailand, with an expansion to 277,923 ha by 2020. This review aims to comprehensively analyze not only the historical changes but also the future outlook based on the land use changes within the mangrove ecosystem and the drivers of changes. Combining a systematic literature review with the Driver, Pressure, State, Impact, and Response (DPSIR) framework, we identified key factors that impact mangrove ecosystems in Thailand. Results indicate that previous research mostly focused on ecological outcomes of land use change in mangrove regions while limited attention has been paid to socioeconomic aspects. During 1988–2014, the creation of aquaculture ponds was the dominant threat to mangroves, but this was at least partly mitigated by capacity development for ameliorating the impacts of aquaculture. More recently, from 2015 to 2023, there has been a decline in the number and spatial extent of aquaculture ponds, which other land uses have replaced. This specifically includes mangrove restoration and monitoring, which were motivated not only by efforts for environmental conservation but also incentivized by enhanced biodiversity and carbon neutrality goals. Nevertheless, there are still knowledge gaps concerning the interplay between socioeconomic factors and the intricacies of carbon management. These challenges necessitate a more thorough examination of actors' interests and influences, and considering mangrove ecosystems within a Sustainability Nexus perspective highlights the interconnections among environmental resources (e.g., biodiversity, water security, climate system) and society. The approach emphasizes integrated planning and takes synergies and tradeoffs between different management objectives into consideration, thus allowing for an approach to sustainable development that equally considers human needs and complex environmental systems. Ultimately, addressing the above-mentioned gaps is crucial not only for preserving mangroves but also for advancing Thailand's climate-related objectives and ensuring overall sustainability.