Drivers of smallholder adoption and the intensity of conservation agriculture in the Masvingo District of Zimbabwe

Conservation agriculture (CA) has been promoted among smallholders in Zimbabwe as a way of addressing challenges associated with poor soil fertility, low yields, and insufficient rainwater. The technique was introduced to smallholders as a manual technology. The expected benefits for adopters include improved and more stable crop yields, and higher returns to inputs used in farming. Despite its claimed advantages, smallholder adoption rates of CA in Zimbabwe remained low. Empirical studies of CA adoption have not explained the intensity of its uptake. This study investigates factors influencing both the use of CA and the intensity of its uptake amongst 237 smallholders sampled in the Masvingo district of Zimbabwe. The intensity of uptake was measured using an index that accounted for the number of CA components used, and the rate and extent of their application. The determinants of use and intensity were identified using a double hurdle model. Although most smallholders implemented the reduced tillage component of CA, only a few implemented all three components. Farm size and experience with CA technology impacted positively on the current use of CA. Distance from town (market) and ownership of an ox-drawn plough reduced the intensity of its uptake. Policy makers should consider institutional changes to improve smallholder access to cropland. Extension agencies should consider more participatory approaches that encourage farmer to farmer information dissemination and training. Contract farming could help overcome problems of accessing farm inputs. Sensitivity analysis showed that results change when the intensity of CA uptake is measured without accounting for the rate and extent of its application. This suggest a need for further research to establish an agreed, comprehensive measure of intensity.