Bioavailability, Efficacy, Safety, and Regulatory Status of Creatine and Related Compounds: A Critical Review

In 2011, we published a paper providing an overview about the bioavailability, efficacy, and regulatory status of creatine monohydrate (CrM), as well as other &ldquo:novel forms&rdquo: of creatine that were being marketed at the time. This paper concluded that no other purported form of creatine had been shown to be a more effective source of creatine than CrM, and that CrM was recognized by international regulatory authorities as safe for use in dietary supplements. Moreover, that most purported &ldquo:forms&rdquo: of creatine that were being marketed at the time were either less bioavailable, less effective, more expensive, and/or not sufficiently studied in terms of safety and/or efficacy. We also provided examples of several &ldquo:forms&rdquo: of creatine that were being marketed that were not bioavailable sources of creatine or less effective than CrM in comparative effectiveness trials. We had hoped that this paper would encourage supplement manufacturers to use CrM in dietary supplements given the overwhelming efficacy and safety profile. Alternatively, encourage them to conduct research to show their purported &ldquo:form&rdquo: of creatine was a bioavailable, effective, and safe source of creatine before making unsubstantiated claims of greater efficacy and/or safety than CrM. Unfortunately, unsupported misrepresentations about the effectiveness and safety of various &ldquo:forms&rdquo: of creatine have continued. The purpose of this critical review is to: (1) provide an overview of the physiochemical properties, bioavailability, and safety of CrM: (2) describe the data needed to substantiate claims that a &ldquo:novel form&rdquo: of creatine is a bioavailable, effective, and safe source of creatine: (3) examine whether other marketed sources of creatine are more effective sources of creatine than CrM: (4) provide an update about the regulatory status of CrM and other purported sources of creatine sold as dietary supplements: and (5) provide guidance regarding the type of research needed to validate that a purported &ldquo:new form&rdquo: of creatine is a bioavailable, effective and safe source of creatine for dietary supplements. Based on this analysis, we categorized forms of creatine that are being sold as dietary supplements as either having strong, some, or no evidence of bioavailability and safety. As will be seen, CrM continues to be the only source of creatine that has substantial evidence to support bioavailability, efficacy, and safety. Additionally, CrM is the source of creatine recommended explicitly by professional societies and organizations and approved for use in global markets as a dietary ingredient or food additive.