Geographical Origin Authentication of Leaves and Drupes from Olea europaea via 1H NMR and Excitation–Emission Fluorescence Spectroscopy: A Data Fusion Approach

Geographical origin authentication of agrifood products is essential for ensuring their quality, preventing fraud, and maintaining consumers&rsquo: trust. In this study, we used proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) and excitation&ndash:emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence spectroscopy combined with chemometric methods for the geographical origin characterization of olive drupes and leaves from different Tuscany subregions, where olive oil production is relevant. Single-block approaches were implemented for individual datasets, using principal component analysis (PCA) for data visualization and Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (SIMCA) for sample classification. 1H NMR spectroscopy provided detailed metabolomic profiles, identifying key compounds such as polyphenols and organic acids that contribute to geographical differentiation. EEM fluorescence spectroscopy, in combination with Parallel Factor Analysis (PARAFAC), revealed distinctive fluorescence signatures associated with polyphenolic content. A mid-level data fusion strategy, integrating the common dimensions (ComDim) method, was explored to improve the models&rsquo: performance. The results demonstrated that both spectroscopic techniques independently provided valuable insights in terms of geographical characterization, while data fusion further improved the model performances, particularly for olive drupes. Notably, this study represents the first attempt to apply EEM fluorescence for the geographical classification of olive drupes and leaves, highlighting its potential as a complementary tool in geographic origin authentication. The integration of advanced spectroscopic and chemometric methods offers a reliable approach for the differentiation of samples from closely related areas at a subregional level.