Human health hazards at the Selebi Phikwe Ni-Cu Mining area, Botswana

Thesis

This thesis, which is presented in eleven chapters, discusses the health hazards affecting inhabitants of the Selebi Phikwe nickel-copper (Ni-Cu) mine area, Botswana. The setting up of Botswana's premier large scale economic enterprise was conducted without prior environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies. Consequently, both environmental and human health problems have been suspected within ihe Selebi Phikwe area. Inhabitants of the area often exhibit symptoms of sickness and disease, and ailments such as coughs, influenza, headaches, chest pains, shortness of breath, pneumonia, cardio-pulmonary health complications, tuberculosis, general body weakness, loss of body weight and poor sexual performances, among others, have been prevalent. The effects of both air and heavy metals pollution on human health are apparently intertwined. A need therefore to investigate the health status of residents within Selebi Phikwe with a bias to pulmonary health complications related to the exploitation of Ni-Cu ore, was eminent. Primary data concerning the general health status of inhabitants in the Selebi Phikwe area and of inhabitants at a control site was obtained by means of a questionnaire and structured interviews conducted with selected individuals, health service providers, industries and educational Institutions. The study area was divided into nine sites and the tenth site was the control area located 56 km from Selebi Phikwe. The information obtained was supplemented by the administering of spirometry tests. The results obtained from the questionnaires and the spirometry work were processed, analysed and interpreted contextually using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Microsoft Excel software packages. Furthermore, hard copies and digital maps were used with the aid of ArcGIS software packages to spatially express selected aspects related to human health hazards. Chapters One, Two and Three deal with the background to the study and the different methods and techniques which were used to carry out the research. Chapter Four focuses on the health status of individuals residing within the Selebi Phikwe mine area. Chapter Five investigates the health status of pupils/students attending educational institutions, and Chapter Six explores the health status of workers of businesses and industries, within the study area. The available health services and health status of patients within Selebi Phikwe area is reported in Chapter Seven. Chapter Eight reports on the use of the lung function test to evaluate the health status of residents within the study area. In Chapter Nine, Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques were applied, using the findings of the previous chapters, in an attempt to determine the health status of residents within the Selebi Phikwe area. Chapter Ten reports on an integrated approach combining data from the previous chapters, in understanding the human health status within the study area, and in Chapter Eleven the conclusions are given. Common ailments, sicknesses and diseases found in the area included asthma, bleeding tendencies, heart disease, high blood pressure, allergies, general body weakness, chest pain, coughing, constipation, diarrhoea, influenza/common cold, headache, loss of body weight, lower abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting, palpitations, shortness of breath, unusual spitting, genital discharge, and cancers. Symptoms of these sicknesses and diseases include the four most frequent health complaints of the residents of Selebi Phikwe which are coughing often, frequent headaches, frequent influenza/common colds and rampant chest pains. Responses revealed that individuals had respiratory tract-related problems which were considered to be linked to the effects of air pollution caused by the emission of sulphur dioxide (S02) from mining and smelting activities. Regarding pupils/students attending educational institutions within the study area and workers of businesses and industries, it was realised that they were frequently in contact with S02 and related gases and fumes, mineral and silica dust generated from the mining processes. There were no clearly demarcating differences in the health status of patients living in the control site from those in the other nine study areas in Selebi Phikwe. The results of this study further indicated that similar sites identified in previous studies which were more contaminated in terms of heavy metals concentrations had higher percentage values of residents suffering from negative health effects than the other sites. Sites most affected were sites five, six and four; while sites eight, nine and ten were the least affected. Models are postulated which summarise the interplay of biological (including genetic factors), socio-economic, environmental (including noise, fumes, gases and dust), and other factors bearing on the health status of the residents of Selebi Phikwe. Environmental factors resulting from mining and smelting activities, among others, could very well be contributory to the negative health effects occurring at Selebi Phikwe. It is therefore evident that mining and smelting activities could be contributory to some of the negative health effects identified in this study.