Objective: To determine the ultrasonographic features of the coelomic organs of healthy snakes belonging to the Boidae and Pythonidae families. Animals: 16 ball pythons (Python regius; 7 males, 8 females, and 1 sexually immature), 10 Indian rock pythons (Python molurus molurus; 5 males, 4 females, and 1 sexually immature), 12 Python curtus (5 males and 7 females), and 8 boa constrictors (Boa constrictor imperator; 4 males and 4 females). Procedures: All snakes underwent complete ultrasonographic evaluation of the coelomic cavity; chemical restraint was not necessary. A dorsolateral approach to probe placement was chosen to increase image quality and to avoid injury to the snakes and operators. Qualitative and quantitative observations were recorded. Results: The liver, stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, small and large intestines, kidneys, cloaca, and scent glands were identified in all snakes. The hemipenes were identified in 10 of the 21 (48%) male snakes. The spleen was identified in 5 of the 46 (11%) snakes, and ureters were identified in 6 (13%). In 2 sexually immature snakes, the gonads were not visible. One (2%) snake was gravid, and 7 (15%) had small amounts of free fluid in the coelomic cavity. A significant positive correlation was identified between several measurements (diameter and thickness of scent glands, gastric and pyloric walls, and colonic wall) and body length (snout to vent) and body weight. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: The study findings can be used as an atlas of the ultrasonographic anatomy of the coelomic cavity in healthy boid snakes. Ultrasonography was reasonably fast to perform and was well tolerated in conscious snakes.

Objective: To evaluate the B-mode and Doppler ultrasonographic appearance of presumptively normal main axillary and large superficial cervical lymph nodes (MALNs and SCLNs, respectively) in adult dogs. Animals: 51 healthy adult dogs (data from 1 dog were not analyzed). Procedures: For each dog, weight, distance from the cranial aspect of the first sternebra to the caudal aspect of the left ischiatic tuberosity, and thoracic height and width at the level of the xiphoid process were recorded. Via B-mode and Doppler ultrasonography, echogenic characteristics, size in relation to body size and weight, and vascular supply of the MALNs and the SCLNs were evaluated (1 SCLN in 1 dog was not ultrasonographically visible). Results: Most MALNs were clearly margined, solitary, and ovoid; echopatterns were homogenous or cortical and hypo- to isoechoic, compared with surrounding soft tissues. Size measurements of MALNs correlated with dogs' body length, thoracic width and height, and body weight. Most SCLNs were clearly margined, fusiform, and hypoechoic (compared with surrounding soft tissues) with a cortical or homogenous echopattern. Size measurements of SCLNs correlated with dogs' body length, thoracic width and height, and body weight. In 50 of the 100 MALNs, an intranodal vascular supply was detected; in contrast, an intranodal vascular supply in SCLNs was detected infrequently. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Results indicated that, in dogs, anatomically separate lymph nodes have different echogenic and vascular characteristics; body size (skeletal length, height, and width), along with body weight, were correlated with sizes of presumptively normal MALNs and SCLNs.

Objective: To noninvasively evaluate physiologic postprandial adaptations of the heart in snakes. Animals: 6 juvenile Paraguay anacondas (Eunectes notaeus). Procedures: The heart of each anaconda was echocardiographically evaluated after food was withheld for 28 days as well as 3 and 10 days after feeding. Physical measurements included body length, weight, and circumference at the level of the heart. Echocardiographic measurements included heart rate and 2-D total and internal ventricular area. From these measurements, total ventricular volume as well as the myocardial area as a surrogate of myocardial mass was calculated. Results: No significant changes in body length, weight, and circumference were found. Significant increases in heart rate (from 45 to 58 beats/min), total ventricular volume (from 4.63 to 5.54 mL), and myocardial area (from 0.7 to 0.81 cm2) were detected 10 days after feeding, compared with results obtained prior to feeding after food had been withheld for 28 days. No pericardial effusion was detected at any time point. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Echocardiographic evaluation of the heart of anacondas was performed, and feeding resulted in concentric cardiac hypertrophy. Physiologic fluctuation of cardiac dimensions should be considered when cardiac imaging is performed in snakes.

Objective—To evaluate the radiographic, computed tomographic (CT), and cadaveric anatomy of the head of boa constrictors. Animals—4 Boa constrictor imperator cadavers. Procedures—Cadavers weighed 3.4 to 5.6 kg and had a body length ranging from 189 to 221 cm. Radiographic and CT images were obtained with a high-detail screen-film combination, and conventional CT was performed with a slice thickness of 1.5 mm. Radiographic images were obtained in ventrodorsal, dorsoventral, and left and right laterolateral recumbency; CT images were obtained with the animals positioned in ventral recumbency directly laying on a plastic support. At the end of the radiographic and CT imaging session, 2 heads were sectioned following a stratigraphic approach; the other 2, carefully maintained in the same position on the plastic support, were moved into a freezer (-20°C) until completely frozen and then sectioned into 3-mm slices, respecting the imaging protocol. The frozen sections were cleaned and then photographed on each side. Anatomic structures were identified and labeled on gross anatomic images and on the corresponding CT or radiographic image with the aid of available literature. Results—Radiographic and CT images provided high detail for visualization of bony structures; soft tissues were not easily identified on radiographic and CT images. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results provide an atlas of stratigraphic and cross-sectional gross anatomy and radiographic and CT anatomy of the heads of boa constrictors that might be useful in the interpretation of any imaging modality in this species.

Using an applanation tonometer, 5 replicate intraocular pressure (IOP) measurements were obtained from each eye of 12 young, clinically normal, American alligators. Alligator length ranged from 46 to 117 cm, measured from snout to tail tip. All IOP were recorded by a single observer at an ambient temperature of approximately 25 C, and ranged from 5 to 35 mm of Hg. Observer reliability was excellent (intraclass r = 0.93), and IOP did not change over the ordered sequence of 5 replicate measurements/eye. Replicate IOP measurements were, therefore, averaged in each eve for comparison between eyes of the same alligator. Left and right eye IOP were highly correlated within individual alligators (r = 0.92), whereas the mean within-animal difference between left and right eye IOP was not statistically significant (95% confidence interval [CI] for the left eye-right eye mean difference, -1.9 to 1.5 mm of Hg). Mean IOP determined for 5 confirmed females and 3 confirmed males did not differ significantly between the sexes (95% CI for the male-female difference in means, -2.1 to 3.7 mm of Hg). Mean +/- SEM IOP of 23.7 + 2.1 mm of Hg determined for 4 alligators < 50 cm long was significantly (P = 0.009) greater than mean IOP of 11.6 + 0.5 mm of Hg determined for 8 alligators > 50 cm long (95% CI for the difference in means, 8.5 to 15.7 mm of Hg). In young alligators, the relation between body length and IOP appears to be nonlinear, possibly with a negative exponent.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate and compare morphological characteristics of the dens in atlantoaxial instability (AAI)-predisposed toy-breed dogs (TBDs) with and without AAI and non–AAI-predisposed healthy Beagles. ANIMALS 80 AAI-affected and 40 nonaffected TBDs and 40 Beagles. PROCEDURES Each dog underwent CT examination of the cervical vertebral column. On median 3-D multiplanar reconstruction images, the dens angle (DA) was measured as were the lengths of the dens and the body of the axis; the dens-to-axis length ratio (ratio of the dens length to the axis body length [DALR]) was calculated. Data were compared among dog groups. RESULTS The DALR in nonaffected TBDs and Beagles did not differ significantly. The mean DALR for AAI-affected TBDs was significantly lower than that for nonaffected TBDs. The mean DA of AAI-affected TBDs was significantly greater than that of Beagles and nonaffected TBDs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that a low DALR might be associated with a high probability of dens abnormalities in TBDs. Additionally, dens length in AAI-affected TBDs appeared to be smaller than that in non–AAI-affected TBDs, given the low DALR in AAI-affected TBDs. Further investigations to determine reference ranges of the DA and DALR and the potential usefulness of those variables as diagnostic markers for AAI in TBDs are warranted.

OBJECTIVE To develop equations for prediction of total body water (TBW) content in unsedated dogs by combining impedance (resistance and reactance) and morphological variables and to compare the results of those equations with TBW content determined by deuterium dilution (TBWd). ANIMALS 26 healthy adult Beagles. PROCEDURES TBW content was determined directly by deuterium dilution and indirectly with equations developed from measurements obtained by use of a portable bioelectric impedance device and morphological variables including body length, height, weight, and thoracic and abdominal circumferences. RESULTS Impedance and morphological data from 16 of the 26 dogs were used to determine coefficients for the following 2 equations: TBW1 = −0.019 (BL2/R) + −0.199 (RC + AC) + 0.996W + 0.081H + 12.31; and TBW2 = 0.048 (BL2/R) + −0.144 (RC + AC) + 0.777W + 0.066H + 0.031X + 7.47, where AC is abdominal circumference, H is height, BL is body length, R is resistance, RC is rib cage circumference, W is body weight, and × is reactance. Results for TBW1 (R21 = 0.843) and TBW2 (R22 = 0.816) were highly correlated with the TBWd. When the equations were validated with data from the remaining 10 dogs, the respective mean differences between TBWd and TBW1 and TBW2 were 0.17 and 0.11 L, which equated to a nonsignificant underestimation of TBW content by 2.4% and 1.6%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that impedance and morphological data can be used to accurately estimate TBW content in adult Beagles. This method of estimating TBW content is less expensive and easier to perform than is measurement of TBWd, making it appealing for daily use in veterinary practice.

Objective: To evaluate the use of ultrasonography for thyroid gland assessment in healthy Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus), describe the ultrasonographic appearance of the thyroid gland and adjacent anatomic structures, and identify potential associations between variations in thyroid gland morphology and demographic features in this species. Animals: 18 captive Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins. Procedures: 1,404 ultrasonographic examinations of the thyroid gland and adjacent anatomic structures (eg, cervical lymph nodes, musculature, and vasculature) were performed during the > 3-year study period. Shape, echogenicity, and homogeneity of thyroid glands were assessed, and glands were categorized into morphological configurations on the basis of results of 2-D and 3-D ultrasonographic evaluation. Associations between demographic factors and thyroid gland morphology were assessed. Results: Thyroid lobes appeared elliptical or fusiform in the transverse scan plane and round to oval in longitudinal scan planes; morphologically, glands comprised 2 lobes joined by an isthmus or a roughly diamond-shaped structure located on the ventral surface of the trachea. Major blood vessels and cervical lymph nodes were identified. Thyroid parenchyma was typically uniform and homogeneous, with echogenic reticulations and well-defined borders. Thyroid glands were hypoechoic or isoechoic relative to the sternocephalicus muscle; echogenicity was greater in adolescents than in adults. Thyroid gland volume differed between sexes, between sexually mature and immature dolphins, and among age groups and was positively correlated with body length and weight. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Ultrasonography provided a reliable and repeatable method for evaluation of thyroid glands and adjacent anatomic structures in live dolphins.

Somatosensory evoked potentials in response to tibial nerve stimulation were recorded from the scalp of 31 clinically normal mixed-breed dogs. The latency and amplitude of a main positive potential (P18), recorded with a frontal electrode referenced to the nose, were measured in subjects with body length ranging from 316 to 962 mm. A linear relation to body size explained the variations in latency among dogs (r2 = 0.81); the amplitude variations were explained in part by body size (r2 = 0.44). Bilateral tibial nerve stimulation significantly (P < 0.05) increased the amplitude of P18, but its latency was unaffected, compared with unilateral stimulation. Results of unilateral right and left tibial nerve stimulation were compared and were not different. Replacing acepromazine with xylazine as premedication before thiopental anesthesia did not influence the recordings.