Thrombocytes in vertebrates other than mammals, inter alia in fish, are analogues of platelets in mammals. In Osteichthyes, these cells take part in haemostatic processes, including aggregation and release reactions in cases of blood vessel damage, and in the immune response development as well. This paper discusses the development of thrombocytes in Osteichthyes, taking into account the need to make changes to the concept of grouping progenitor cells as suggested in the literature. The following pages present the morphological and cytochemical properties of thrombocytes as well as their defence functions, and also point out differences between thrombocytes in fish and platelets in mammals. The paper further highlights the level of thrombocytes’ immune activity observed in fish and based on an increased proportion of these cells in response to antigenic stimulation, on morphological shifts towards forms characteristic of dendritic cells after antigenic stimulation and on the presence of surface structures and cytokines released through, inter alia, gene expression of TLR receptors, MHC class II protein-coding genes and pro-inflammatory cytokines. The study also points out the need to recognise thrombocytes in Osteichthyes as specialised immune cells conditioning non-specific immune mechanisms and playing an important role in affecting adaptive immune mechanisms.

Thrombocytes in vertebrates other than mammals, inter alia in fish, are analogues of platelets in mammals. In Osteichthyes, these cells take part in haemostatic processes, including aggregation and release reactions in cases of blood vessel damage, and in the immune response development as well. This paper discusses the development of thrombocytes in Osteichthyes, taking into account the need to make changes to the concept of grouping progenitor cells as suggested in the literature. The following pages present the morphological and cytochemical properties of thrombocytes as well as their defence functions, and also point out differences between thrombocytes in fish and platelets in mammals. The paper further highlights the level of thrombocytes’ immune activity observed in fish and based on an increased proportion of these cells in response to antigenic stimulation, on morphological shifts towards forms characteristic of dendritic cells after antigenic stimulation and on the presence of surface structures and cytokines released through, inter alia, gene expression of TLR receptors, MHC class II protein-coding genes and pro-inflammatory cytokines. The study also points out the need to recognise thrombocytes in Osteichthyes as specialised immune cells conditioning non-specific immune mechanisms and playing an important role in affecting adaptive immune mechanisms.

Introduction: The thyroid and parathyroid glands play a major role in maintaining physiological homeostasis in all vertebrates. Reptiles have plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones far lower than mammals. Low levels of these hormones in reptiles impede thyroid hormone detection with assays designed for the higher levels of mammals. The aim of this study was to explore teaming this with ultrasound imaging of the thyroid to appraise glandular function. Material and Methods: Thyroid function of four pond sliders was evaluated based on the results of T4 analyses and ultrasound. Results: The concentrations of T4 varied considerably between the examined animals from <9 nmol/L to >167.3 nmol/L. Ultrasound examination revealed uniform echogenicity and a smooth outline of the thyroid gland in all animals. Conclusion: Monitoring of thyroid function based on T4 and electrolyte concentrations is helpful in assessing the health and living conditions of reptiles, which is important in veterinary practice but problematic. Ultrasound examinations are useful in diagnosing changes in gland structure, such as tumours and goitres, and a combination of both methods supports comprehensive assessments of the anatomy and function of the thyroid gland.

Introduction: The thyroid and parathyroid glands play a major role in maintaining physiological homeostasis in all vertebrates. Reptiles have plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones far lower than mammals. Low levels of these hormones in reptiles impede thyroid hormone detection with assays designed for the higher levels of mammals. The aim of this study was to explore teaming this with ultrasound imaging of the thyroid to appraise glandular function. Material and Methods: Thyroid function of four pond sliders was evaluated based on the results of T4 analyses and ultrasound. Results: The concentrations of T4 varied considerably between the examined animals from <9 nmol/L to >167.3 nmol/L. Ultrasound examination revealed uniform echogenicity and a smooth outline of the thyroid gland in all animals. Conclusion: Monitoring of thyroid function based on T4 and electrolyte concentrations is helpful in assessing the health and living conditions of reptiles, which is important in veterinary practice but problematic. Ultrasound examinations are useful in diagnosing changes in gland structure, such as tumours and goitres, and a combination of both methods supports comprehensive assessments of the anatomy and function of the thyroid gland.

Dengue is one of the major emerging viral diseases in the world, with dramatic increases in reported cases in the last few decades and annual worldwide occurrence of approximately 390 million infections. It is a highly important mosquito-vectored disease and is a problem in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. The major aim of this study was to clone and express the dengue NS3 gene, in service to its therapeutic importance for the development of stable cell lines. Blood samples from dengue fever (DF) patients were collected and subjected to PCR amplification of the NS3 gene of dengue virus serotype-2 (DENV-2). The NS3 gene was amplified using gene specific primers and cloned in the TA cloning vectors. The gene was successfully expressed in mammalian expression vector pcDNA3.1. The current finding was different from a previously reported DENV-2 strain replicon constructed in different cells, in which the whole genetic material of the virus was used instead of an active protease gene, and which gave a low yield of replicon expressing cells. Recombinant NS3 could be used to produce an antibody that is possibly helpful for developing a single step diagnostic assay to detect the dengue virus NS3 antigen in sera of dengue patients.

Dengue is one of the major emerging viral diseases in the world, with dramatic increases in reported cases in the last few decades and annual worldwide occurrence of approximately 390 million infections. It is a highly important mosquito-vectored disease and is a problem in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. The major aim of this study was to clone and express the dengue NS3 gene, in service to its therapeutic importance for the development of stable cell lines.

Introduction: Due to their immunostimulatory properties TLR ligands are used prophylactically to protect against a variety of viral and bacterial pathogens in mammals. Knowledge of the molecular and functional aspects of TLRs is essential for a better understanding of the immune system and resistance to diseases in birds. For that reason, this study attempted to determine the impact of TLR21 stimulation by its synthetic ligand (CpG ODN, class B) on the chicken immune system. Material and Methods: Sixty embryonated chicken eggs were randomly allocated into three groups (control and two experimental groups). On day 18 of embryonic development, chickens in one experimental group were administered in ovo a low dose of CpG ODN and the birds of the second experimental group were given a high dose of the ligand. Spleens were collected at 1, 2, 5, and 10 days post-hatching (dph) for analysis of IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-γ, IL-6, and IL-10 expression using qRT-PCR. Results: Significant differences were observed in mRNA expression levels of all the measured cytokines associated with the modulation and regulation of the immune response at different time points. Conclusion: The obtained data clearly demonstrate that immune response induction takes place after in ovo administration of class B CpG ODN, and that the ligand has the ability to induce cytokine responses in neonatal chicken spleen.

Introduction: Due to their immunostimulatory properties TLR ligands are used prophylactically to protect against a variety of viral and bacterial pathogens in mammals. Knowledge of the molecular and functional aspects of TLRs is essential for a better understanding of the immune system and resistance to diseases in birds. For that reason, this study attempted to determine the impact of TLR21 stimulation by its synthetic ligand (CpG ODN, class B) on the chicken immune system.