This study was conducted to investigate the presence of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in different geographic locations of Tanzania. Epithelial tissues and fluids (n = 364) were collected from cattle exhibiting oral and foot vesicular lesions suggestive of FMD and submitted for routine FMD diagnosis. The analysis of these samples collected during the period of 2002 and 2010 was performed by serotype-specific antigen capture ELISA to determine the presence of FMDV. The results of this study indicated that 167 out of 364 (46.1%) of the samples contained FMDV antigen. Of the 167 positive samples, 37 (28.4%) were type O, 7 (4.1%) type A, 45 (21.9%) SAT 1 and 79 (45.6%) SAT 2. Two FMDV serotypes (O and SAT 2) were widely distributed throughout Tanzania whilst SAT 1 and A types were only found in the Eastern zone. Our findings suggest that serotypes A, O, SAT 1 and SAT 2 prevail in Tanzania and are associated with the recent FMD outbreaks. The lack of comprehensive animal movement records and inconsistent vaccination programmes make it difficult to determine the exact source of FMD outbreaks or to trace the transmission of the disease over time. Therefore, further collection and analysis of samples from domestic and wild animals are being undertaken to investigate the genetic and antigenic characteristics of the circulating strains, so that a rational method to control FMD in Tanzania and the neighbouring countries can be recommended.

Bovine trypanosomosis displays various epidemiological aspects in various areas. In some instances the disease has a high prevalence in animals with high impact on production whereas in other cases the disease has a low impact on production despite a high level of infection in animals. In addition epidemiological changes are frequently observed in various areas and are related to many factors including the vectors, the host, the parasites, the environment as well as the livestock management. However the implication of these factors in these changes is not fully elucidated. In eastern Zambia, factors predicting the establishment of severe infection in cattle are all present. However trypanosomosis occurring in cattle in this area has a low impact on livestock production. Several studies on the characterisation of trypanosome strains circulating in domestic and wild animals have been conducted in order to clarify the epidemiology of this disease in this area. These studies aimed at evaluating genetic and biological characteristics of these strains including their virulence profiles, their transmissibility by tsetse flies, their resistance to drugs and interference between different strains. In this review these findings are analysed in order to elucidate the implication of trypanosome strain variability in the distribution and the expression of this disease in the study area. The evolutionary trends of the situation occurring in this study area are also explained. Use of these findings is the context of disease control in the study area is further discussed.

Using foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) as an example, this review describes new tools that can be used to detect and characterise livestock diseases. In recent years, molecular tests that can detect and characterise pathogens in a diverse range of sample types have revolutionised laboratory diagnostics. In addition to use in centralised laboratories, there are opportunities to locate diagnostic technologies close to the animals with suspected clinical signs. Work in this area has developed simple-to-use lateral-flow devices for the detection of FMD virus (FMDV), as well as new hardware platforms to allow molecular testing to be deployed into the field for use by non-specialists. Once FMDV has been detected, nucleotide sequencing is used to compare field strains with reference viruses. Transboundary movements of FMDV are routinely monitored using VP1 sequence data, while higher resolution transmission trees (at the farm-to-farm level) can be reconstructed using full-genome sequencing approaches. New technologies such as next-generation sequencing technologies are now being applied to dissect the viral sequence populations that exist within single samples. The driving force for the use of these technologies has largely been influenced by the priorities of developed countries with FMD-free (without vaccination) status. However, it is important to recognise that these approaches also show considerable promise for use in countries where FMD is endemic, although further modifications (such as sample archiving and strain and serotype characterisation) may be required to tailor these tests for use in these regions. Access to these new diagnostic and sequencing technologies in sub-Saharan Africa have the potential to provide novel insights into FMD epidemiology and will impact upon improved strategies for disease control. Effective control of infectious diseases is reliant upon accurate diagnosis of clinical cases using laboratory tests, together with an understanding of factors that impact upon the epidemiology of the infectious agent. A wide range of new diagnostic tools and nucleotide sequencing methods are used by international reference laboratories to detect and characterise the agents causing outbreaks of infectious diseases. In the past, high costs (initial capital expenses, as well as day-to-day maintenance and running costs) and complexity of the protocols used to perform some of these tests have limited the use of these methods in smaller laboratories. However, simpler and more cost-effective formats are now being developed that offer the prospect that these technologies will be even more widely deployed into laboratories particularly those in developing regions of the world such as sub-Saharan Africa.

Africa has the highest burden of infectious diseases in the world and yet the least capacity for its risk management. It has therefore become increasingly important to search for ‘fit-for- purpose’ approaches to infectious disease surveillance and thereby targeted disease control. The fact that the majority of human infectious diseases are originally of animal origin means we have to consider One Health (OH) approaches which require inter-sectoral collaboration for custom-made infectious disease surveillance in the endemic settings of Africa. A baseline survey was conducted to assess the current status and performance of human and animal health surveillance systems and subsequently a strategy towards OH surveillance system was developed. The strategy focused on assessing the combination of participatory epidemiological approaches and the deployment of mobile technologies to enhance the effectiveness of disease alerts and surveillance at the point of occurrence, which often lies in remote areas. We selected three study sites, namely the Ngorongoro, Kagera River basin and Zambezi River basin ecosystems. We have piloted and introduced the next-generation Android mobile phones running the EpiCollect application developed by Imperial College to aid geo-spatial and clinical data capture and transmission of this data from the field to the remote Information Technology (IT) servers at the research hubs for storage, analysis, feedback and reporting. We expect that the combination of participatory epidemiology and technology will significantly improve OH disease surveillance in southern Africa.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of the administration of a high volume of isotonic crystalloid at a rapid rate on cardiovascular function in normovolemic, isoflurane-anesthetized dogs during induced hypotension. Using a prospective study, 6 adult dogs were induced to general anesthesia and cardiovascular and hematological values were measured while the dogs were maintained at 3 hemodynamic states: first during light anesthesia with 1.3% end-tidal isoflurane (ETI); then during a hypotensive state induced by deep anesthesia with 3% ETI for 45 min while administered 1 mL/kg body weight (BW) per minute of isotonic fluids; and then decreased to 1.6% ETI while receiving 1 mL/kg BW per minute of fluids for 15 min. End-tidal isoflurane (ETI) at 3.0 ± 0.2% decreased arterial blood pressure (ABP), cardiac index (CI), and stroke volume index (SVI), and increased stroke volume variation (SVV) and central venous pressure (CVP). Fluid administration during 3% ETI decreased only SVV and systemic vascular resistance index (SVRI), while CVP increased progressively. Decreasing ETI to 1.6 ± 0.1% returned ABP and SVI to baseline (ETI 1.3 ± 0.1%), while CI and heart rate increased and SVV decreased. There was significant progressive clinical hemodilution of hemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), total protein (TP), colloid osmotic pressure (COP), arterial oxygen content (CaO2), and central-venous oxygen content (CcvO2). High-volume, rapid-rate administration of an isotonic crystalloid was ineffective in counteracting isoflurane-induced hypotension in normovolemic dogs at a deep plane of anesthesia. Cardiovascular function improved only when anesthetic depth was reduced. Excessive hemodilution and its adverse consequences should be considered when a high volume of crystalloid is administered at a rapid rate.

Objective: To compare 5 patellar position indices at various stifle joint angles in cadavers of red foxes, determine measurement reliability, and assess the suitability of these indices for clinical use. Sample: Pelvic limbs from cadavers of 12 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Procedures: Patellar position in each limb at 7 stifle joint angles (30° to 148°) was assessed by use of the Insall-Salvati (IS), modified Insall-Salvati (mIS), de Carvalho (dC), patellotrochlear (PT), and Blackburne-Peel (BP) indices. Results: Values for all indices varied significantly on the basis of joint angle, but for IS and mIS indices, this was minor and nonsignificant between 52° and 130° and between 52° and 148°, respectively. The dC index increased linearly, and PT and BP indices varied polynomially with increases in stifle joint angle. Stifle joint angles measured from radiographs agreed well with the goniometrically set stifle joint angles up to approximately 100° and diverged thereafter. Intraobserver and interobserver agreement was substantial for all indices, and IS index was the most precise. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: IS and mIS index values were effectively independent of stifle joint angle, in contrast to dC, PT, and BP indices. The BP index varied nonsignificantly across a range of joint angles. To maximize angular accuracy, radiographs should not be obtained at joint angles > 100°. Although dC, PT, and BP indices appeared to be suitable for preoperative and postoperative evaluation of patellar position, BP index appeared to have the most promise for determination of patellar position in clinical applications.

Objective: To evaluate the effect of acepromazine maleate administered IV on platelet function assessed in healthy dogs by use of a modified thromboelastography assay. Animals: 6 healthy adult mixed-breed dogs. Procedures: Dogs received each of 3 treatments (saline [0.9% NaCl] solution [1 to 2 mL, IV] and acepromazine maleate [0.05 and 0.1 mg/kg, IV]) in a randomized crossover study with a minimum 3-day washout period between treatments. From each dog, blood samples were collected via jugular venipuncture immediately before and 30 and 240 minutes after administration of each treatment. A modified thromboelastography assay, consisting of citrated kaolin–activated (baseline assessment), reptilase-ADP–activated (ADP-activated), and reptilase-arachidonic acid (AA)–activated (AA-activated) thromboelastography, was performed for each sample. Platelet inhibition was evaluated by assessing the percentage change in maximum amplitude for ADP-activated or AA-activated samples, compared with baseline values. Percentage change in maximum amplitude was analyzed by use of Skillings-Mack tests with significance accepted at a family-wise error rate of P < 0.05 by use of Bonferroni corrections for multiple comparisons. Results: No significant differences were found in the percentage change of maximum amplitude from baseline for ADP-activated or AA-activated samples among treatments at any time. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Platelet function in dogs, as assessed by use of a modified thromboelastography assay, was not inhibited by acepromazine at doses of 0.05 or 0.1 mg/kg, IV. This was in contrast to previous reports in which it was suggested that acepromazine may alter platelet function via inhibition of ADP and AA.

Objective: To examine whether a zinc l-carnosine compound used for treatment of suspected gastric ulcers in dogs ameliorates acid-induced injury in canine gastric mucosa. Sample: Gastric mucosa from 6 healthy dogs. Procedures: Mucosa from the gastric antrum was harvested from 6 unadoptable shelter dogs immediately after euthanasia and mounted on Ussing chambers. The tissues were equilibrated for 30 minutes in neutral Ringer's solution prior to incubation with acidic Ringer's solution (HCl plus Ringer's solution [final pH, 1.5 to 2.5]), acidic Ringer's solution plus zinc l-carnosine compound, or zinc l-carnosine compound alone. Tissues were maintained for 180 minutes in Ussing chambers, during which permeability was assessed by measurement of transepithelial electrical resistance. After the 180-minute treatment period, tissues were removed from Ussing chambers and labeled with immunofluorescent anti–active caspase-3 antibody as an indicator of apoptosis. Results: Permeability of the gastric mucosa was significantly increased in a time-dependent manner by addition of HCl, whereas control tissues maintained viability for the study period. Change in permeability was detected within the first 15 minutes after acid application and progressed over the subsequent 150 minutes. The zinc l-carnosine compound had no significant effect on this increase in permeability. Apoptosis was evident in acid-treated tissues but not in control tissues. The zinc l-carnosine compound did not protect against development of apoptosis. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Addition of HCl caused a dose-dependent increase in gastric permeability over time and apparent induction of apoptosis as determined on the basis of immunofluorescence. However, there was no significant protective effect of a zinc l-carnosine compound. Nonetheless, results suggested the utility of this method for further studies of canine gastric injury.

From September 2008 to December 2010, 112 Haemophilus parasuis strains were isolated from 536 pigs with clinical signs of Glässer's disease in South China, for a frequency of 21%. The 112 strains were subjected to serovar analysis by gel diffusion (GD) and indirect hemagglutination (IHA) tests and to genotype analysis by means of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). With a combination of the GD and IHA results, serovars 5 and 4 were found to be the most prevalent, at 23% and 17%, respectively, followed by serovars 2 (8%), 15 (7%), 13 (6%), and 12 (5%); 20% of the strains were nontypeable. The 112 strains were genetically diverse, with 85 genotypes identified (discriminatory index 0.992). The 89 typeable isolates belonged to 15 H. parasuis serovars displaying 63 different PFGE profiles. The 23 nontypeable strains displayed 22 different PFGE profiles. These findings confirmed that 15 serovars and diverse genotypes of H. parasuis were widely distributed in southern China.

Objective: To determine the ideal interval to image acquisition after IV injection of sodium fluoride F 18 (18F-NaF) and evaluate biodistribution of the radiopharmaceutical in clinically normal skeletally immature dogs. Animals: 4 female dogs. Procedures: Each dog was anesthetized for evaluation with a commercial hybrid positron emission tomography (PET)–CT instrument. A low–radiation dose, whole-body CT scan was acquired first. An IV injection of 18F-NaF (0.14 mCi/kg) was administered, and a dynamic PET scan centered over the heart and liver was acquired during a period of 120 minutes. Uptake of 18F-NaF in the blood pool, soft tissues, and skeletal structures was evaluated via region of interest analysis to derive standardized uptake values and time-activity curves, which were used to determine the optimal postinjection time for skeletal image acquisition. Biodistribution was also assessed from a final whole-body PET-CT scan acquired after the dynamic scan. Results: Time-activity curves revealed a rapid decrease in the amount of radiopharmaceutical in the blood pool and soft tissues and a rapid increase in the amount of radiopharmaceutical in bones soon after injection. At 50 minutes after injection, the greatest difference in uptake between soft tissues and bones was detected, with continued subtle increase in uptake in the bones. Uptake of 18F-NaF was slightly increased at growth plates and open ossification centers, compared with that at other parts of the bone. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: At 50 minutes after IV injection of 18F-NaF at the dose evaluated, PET-CT yielded excellent bone-to-background ratio images for evaluation of the skeletal system in dogs.