OBJECTIVE To determine corneal thickness of eyes of healthy goats, sheep, and alpacas by use of a portable spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) device and evaluate intraoperator reliability for measurements. ANIMALS 11 female goats, 10 female sheep, and 11 (4 males and 7 females) alpacas. PROCEDURES Each animal was sedated, and gentle manual restraint was used to ensure proper positioning of the head and globe. Corneal pachymetry was performed (in triplicate) with a portable SD-OCT device on both eyes of each animal. All corneal measurements were obtained manually by use of the integrated caliper function. Corneal epithelial thickness (CET), corneal stromal thickness (CST), Descemet membrane thickness (DMT), and total corneal thickness (TCT) were measured twice on each image, and a mean value was calculated. RESULTS Mean ± SD values for CET, CST, DMT, and TCT were 96.1 ± 5.0 μm, 486.0 ± 10.3 μm, 36.8 ± 4.8 μm, and 616.9 ± 7.1 μm, respectively, for the goats; 111.6 ± 5.7 μm, 599.8 ± 10.0 μm, 31.0 ± 4.5 μm, and 741.1 ± 9.9 μm, respectively, for the sheep; and 147.4 ± 5.7 μm, 446.1 ± 7.4 μm, 44.5 ± 5.0 μm, and 634.8 ± 6.2 μm, respectively, for the alpacas. Intraclass correlations ranged from 0.49 to 0.83 for CET, CST, and TCT and from 0.13 to 0.36 for DMT. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE SD-OCT provided manual measurement of corneal thickness (CET, CST, and TCT) with clinically acceptable intraoperator reliability for eyes of healthy goats, sheep, and alpacas.

OBJECTIVE To examine whether expression of extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer (EMMPRIN) can be detected in equine lungs and whether it correlates with matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and -9 expression in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of horses with chronic inflammation of the lungs (ie, lower airway inflammation [LAI]). ANIMALS 29 horses with signs of chronic respiratory tract disease, which were classified as the LAI (n = 17) and LAI with respiratory distress (RDLAI [12]) groups, and 15 control horses. PROCEDURES BALF, tracheal aspirate, and blood samples were obtained, and EMMPRIN expression was determined from BALF cells and RBCs by use of western blotting. Activities of MMP-2 and -9 were determined with zymography. RESULTS Expression of EMMPRIN protein was identified in BALF cells of all horses. Expression of EMMPRIN protein was highest for the RDLAI group and was correlated with MMP-2 and -9 protein expression, MMP-9 gelatinolytic activity, and airway neutrophilia. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested that EMMPRIN was involved in the pathophysiologic processes of asthma in horses. However, additional studies of horses and other species are warranted to elucidate the regulation of EMMPRIN expression in asthmatic lungs.

OBJECTIVE To investigate the use of canine whole blood (WB) for measurement of ammonia concentration by use of a point-of-care ammonia meter and to compare results of measuring ammonia concentrations in WB, EDTA-anticoagulated WB, and plasma. ANIMALS 40 client-owned dogs. PROCEDURES A blood sample (2 mL) was obtained from each dog. One drop of WB was immediately applied to a test strip for evaluation with an ammonia meter. The remainder of the blood sample was placed in an EDTA-containing tube, and 1 drop of EDTA-anticoagulated WB was applied to a test strip. The remaining EDTA-anticoagulated WB sample was centrifuged, and the plasma was harvested and placed on ice. One drop of plasma was applied to a test strip; the remainder of the plasma sample was transported on ice and used for ammonia measurement with a reference laboratory instrument. All samples were tested within 1 hour after sample collection. Results were evaluated to detect significant differences in ammonia concentration. RESULTS Ammonia concentrations did not differ significantly between WB and EDTA-anticoagulated WB and between plasma samples measured with the meter and reference laboratory instrument. However, median ammonia concentration was significantly higher in plasma than in WB or EDTA-anti-coagulated WB. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Anticoagulant-free WB was a valid sample for measurement by use of the ammonia meter. Plasma samples had higher ammonia concentrations than did WB samples. Results for each sample type should be interpreted by use of specimen- and method-specific reference intervals.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the distribution of T-cell markers (CD4 and CD8α) in lymphoid organs of newborn, juvenile, and adult yaks. ANIMALS: 15 healthy male yaks of various ages from highland plateaus. PROCEDURES: Yaks were allocated to groups on the basis of age (newborn [1 to 7 days old; n = 5], juvenile [5 to 7 months old; 5], and adult [3 to 4 years old; 5]). The thymus, spleen, 5 mesenteric lymph nodes, and 5 hemal nodes were harvested from each yak within 10 minutes after euthanasia. Morphological characteristics of those lymphoid organs were assessed by histologic examination; expression of CD4 and CD8α mRNAs and proteins were measured by quantitative real-time PCR assay and immunohistochemical staining. RESULTS: Among the lymphoid organs evaluated, expressions of CD4 and CD8α mRNAs were highest in the thymus in all age groups. In newborn lymphoid organs, CD4 mRNA expression and CD4+ cell distribution were more predominant, whereas in juvenile and adult lymphoid organs, CD8α mRNA expression and CD8α+ cell distribution were more predominant. The CD4+ and CD8α+ cells were mainly located in the cortex and medulla of the thymus, the medulla of the hemal nodes and mesenteric lymph nodes, the periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths, and the red pulp of the spleen. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated that the CD4 mRNA expression and CD4+ T-cell distribution in yak lymphoid organs decreased and CD8α mRNA expression and CD8α+ T-cell distribution increased with age. Moreover, CD8α+ cells were present in the follicles of yaks’ secondary lymphoid organs, which differs from findings for other mammals.

OBJECTIVE To determine effects of fentanyl, lidocaine, and a fentanyl-lidocaine combination on the minimum alveolar concentration of sevoflurane preventing motor movement (MACNM) in dogs. ANIMALS 6 adult Beagles. PROCEDURES Dogs were anesthetized with sevoflurane in oxygen 3 times (1-week intervals). Baseline MACNM (MAC(NM-B)) was determined starting 45 minutes after induction of anesthesia. Dogs then received 1 of 3 treatments IV: fentanyl (loading dose, 15 μg/kg; constant rate infusion [CRI], 6 μg/kg/h), lidocaine (loading dose, 2 mg/kg; CRI, 6 mg/kg/h), and the fentanyl-lidocaine combination at the same doses. Determination of treatment MAC(NM) (MAC(NM-T)) was initiated 90 minutes after start of the CRI. Venous blood samples were collected at the time of each treatment MACNM measurement for determination of plasma concentrations of fentanyl and lidocaine. RESULTS Mean ± SEM overall MAC(NM-B) for the 3 treatments was 2.70 ± 0.27 vol%. The MACNM decreased from MACNM-B to MAC(NM-T) by 39%, 21%, and 55% for fentanyl, lidocaine, and the fentanyl-lidocaine combination, respectively. This decrease differed significantly among treatments. Plasma fentanyl concentration was 3.25 and 2.94 ng/mL for fentanyl and the fentanyl-lidocaine combination, respectively. Plasma lidocaine concentration was 2,570 and 2,417 ng/mL for lidocaine and the fentanyl-lidocaine combination, respectively. Plasma fentanyl and lidocaine concentrations did not differ significantly between fentanyl and the fentanyl-lidocaine combination or between lidocaine and the fentanyl-lidocaine combination. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE CRIs of fentanyl, lidocaine, and the fentanyl-lidocaine combination at the doses used were associated with clinically important and significant decreases in the MAC(NM) of sevoflurane in dogs.

The objectives of the study were to determine the species composition of ticks infesting white and black rhinoceroses in southern Africa as well as the conservation status of those tick species that prefer rhinos as hosts. Ticks were collected opportunistically from rhinos that had been immobilised for management purposes, and 447 white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum) and 164 black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) were sampled in South Africa, 61 black rhinos in Namibia, 18 white and 12 black rhinos in Zimbabwe, and 24 black rhinos in Zambia. Nineteen tick species were recovered, of which two species, Amblyomma rhinocerotis and Dermacentor rhinocerinus, prefer rhinos as hosts. A. rhinocerotis was collected only in the north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal reserves of South Africa and is endangered, while D. rhinocerinus is present in these reserves as well as in the Kruger National Park and surrounding conservancies. Eight of the tick species collected from the rhinos are ornate, and seven species are regularly collected from cattle. The species present on rhinos in the eastern, moister reserves of South Africa were amongst others Amblyomma hebraeum, A. rhinocerotis, D. rhinocerinus, Rhipicephalus maculatus, Rhipicephalus simus and Rhipicephalus zumpti, while those on rhinos in the Karoo and the drier western regions, including Namibia, were the drought-tolerant species, Hyalomma glabrum, Hyalomma rufipes, Hyalomma truncatum and Rhipicephalus gertrudae. The species composition of ticks on rhinoceroses in Zambia differed markedly from those of the other southern African countries in that Amblyomma sparsum, Amblyomma tholloni and Amblyomma variegatum accounted for the majority of infestations.

Since 1982, farmers in the North West province and other parts of South Africa have noticed an increase in the incidence of lameness in cattle. Macro- and microscopical lesions of joints resembled osteochondrosis. Pre-trial data indicated that cattle with osteochondrotic lesions recovered almost completely when fed a supplement containing bio-available micro- and macrominerals of high quality. In the present trial, 43 clinically affected cattle of varying ages (1-5 years) and sexes were randomly divided into three groups. Each group was fed the same commercial supplement base with differing micro- and macromineral concentrations to determine the effect of mineral concentrations on the recovery from osteochondrosis. Both supplements 1 and 2 contained 25% of the recommended National Research Council (NRC) mineral values. Additional phosphate was added to supplement 2. Supplement 3, containing 80% of the NRC mineral values, was used as the control. Results from all three groups indicated no recovery from osteochondrosis. Urine pH of a small sample of the test cattle showed aciduria (pH < 6). Supplement analysis revealed addition of ammonium sulphate that contributed sulphate and nitrogen to the supplement. Supplementary dietary cation anion difference (DCAD) values were negative at -411 mEq/kg, -466 mEq/kg and -467 mEq/kg for supplements 1, 2 and 3, respectively, whereas the pre-trial supplement was calculated at +19.87 mEq/kg. It was hypothesised that feeding a low (negative) DCAD diet will predispose growing cattle to the development of osteochondrosis or exacerbate subclinical or clinical osteochondrosis in cattle.

The aim of the study was to determine the species spectrum of ixodid ticks that infest horses and donkeys in South Africa and to identify those species that act as vectors of disease to domestic livestock. Ticks were collected opportunistically from 391 horses countrywide by their owners or grooms, or by veterinary students and staff at the Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria. Ticks were also collected from 76 donkeys in Limpopo Province, 2 in Gauteng Province and 1 in North West province. All the ticks were identified by means of a stereoscopic microscope. Horses were infested with 17 tick species, 72.1% with Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi, 19.4% with Amblyomma hebraeum and 15.6% with Rhipicephalus decoloratus. Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi was recovered from horses in all nine provinces of South Africa and R. decoloratus in eight provinces. Donkeys were infested with eight tick species, and 81.6% were infested with R. evertsi evertsi, 23.7% with A. hebraeum and 10.5% with R. decoloratus. Several tick species collected from the horses and donkeys are the vectors of economically important diseases of livestock. Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi is the vector of Theileria equi, the causative organism of equine piroplasmosis. It also transmits Anaplasma marginale, the causative organism of anaplasmosis in cattle. Amblyomma hebraeum is the vector of Ehrlichia ruminantium, the causative organism of heartwater in cattle, sheep and goats, whereas R. decoloratus transmits Babesia bigemina, the causative organism of babesiosis in cattle.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an endemic infectious disease of cattle in Egypt. This survey aimed to define the prevalence of clinical and sub-clinical LSD virus (LSDV) infection among cattle and investigate their contact with water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in order to improve the understanding of LSD epidemiology. Cattle and buffalo were examined owing to the appearance of skin lesions. Because clinical signs were consistent with LSDV infection, samples from cattle in a non-grazing dairy farm (n = 450) were submitted for LSDV testing together with those from the in-contact buffaloes (n = 100). Results revealed that the intra-herd percentage of cattle infected with LSDV varied with the detection method. This ranged from 22.4% to 65.4% by virus isolation (VI) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), respectively, in clinical cattle samples, compared to 0% and 10% by VI and PCR in non-clinical cases. Using the neutralising index (NI), LSDV antibodies were found in 100% (n = 100) of the tested cow's sera (NI = > 2.0 and &#8805; 3.0), whereas buffalo's sera (n = 34) displayed little increase in antibody level (NI &#8805; 1.5). None of the buffalo were positive for LSDV by VI and PCR. In addition, there were no significant differences in LSD prevalence among the cattle with regard to age and sex. In conclusion, the occurrence of LSD in cattle warrants a further epidemiological study of the spread of the disease in the area and adoption of control and prevention strategies. In addition, the PCR assay was confirmed to be useful in the diagnosis of LSDV and for wider epidemiological studies.

Enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney) is a common bacterial disease of sheep caused by Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin. It has mortality rates of up to 30% in non-vaccinated animals. Current vaccines from whole cell cultures are expensive to manufacture and can induce local inflammatory responses in sheep. They usually have reduced immunogenicity because of the difficulty of standardising the inactivation step in vaccine manufacturing. In the current study, we evaluated the safety and potency of a recombinant plant-made epsilon toxoid protein (r-Etox) as an affordable and safer alternative vaccine for developing countries. Results of injection site reactions, rectal temperature and toxin neutralisation test in single and prime-boost inoculations of mice, guinea pigs and sheep suggest that the product is not toxic to animals and could protect sheep against enterotoxaemia.