Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are typically isolated and cultured by successive passages using 9- to 11-day-old embryonated chicken eggs (ECEs) and in 14-day old ECEs for virus mutational studies. Real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction tests (RT-PCRs) are commonly used for IAV diagnosis, but virus isolation remains invaluable in terms of its high sensitivity, providing viable isolates for further studies and the ability to distinguish between viable and nonviable virus. Efforts at isolating ostrich-origin IAVs from RT-PCR positive specimens using ECEs have often been unsuccessful, raising the possibility of a species bottleneck, whereby ostrich-adapted IAVs may not readily infect and replicate in ECEs, yet the capacity of an ostrich embryo to support the replication of influenza viruses has not been previously demonstrated. This study describes an optimised method for H5 and H7 subtype IAV isolation and propagation in 28-day old embryonated ostrich eggs (EOEs), the biological equivalent of 14-day old ECEs. The viability of EOEs transported from breeding sites could be maximised by pre-incubating the eggs for 12 to 14 days prior to long-distance transportation. This method applied to studies for ostrich-adapted virus isolation and in ovo studies will enable better understanding of the virus-host interaction in ostriches and the emergence of potentially zoonotic diseases.

Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are typically isolated and cultured by successive passages using 9- to 11-day-old embryonated chicken eggs (ECEs) and in 14-day old ECEs for virus mutational studies. Real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction tests (RT-PCRs) are commonly used for IAV diagnosis, but virus isolation remains invaluable in terms of its high sensitivity, providing viable isolates for further studies and the ability to distinguish between viable and nonviable virus. Efforts at isolating ostrich-origin IAVs from RT-PCR positive specimens using ECEs have often been unsuccessful, raising the possibility of a species bottleneck, whereby ostrich-adapted IAVs may not readily infect and replicate in ECEs, yet the capacity of an ostrich embryo to support the replication of influenza viruses has not been previously demonstrated. This study describes an optimised method for H5 and H7 subtype IAV isolation and propagation in 28-day old embryonated ostrich eggs (EOEs), the biological equivalent of 14-day old ECEs. The viability of EOEs transported from breeding sites could be maximised by pre-incubating the eggs for 12 to 14 days prior to long-distance transportation. This method applied to studies for ostrich-adapted virus isolation and in ovo studies will enable better understanding of the virus-host interaction in ostriches and the emergence of potentially zoonotic diseases.

Water quality is critical for poultry farming. This study assessed the physical, chemical and microbiological quality of drinking water in small-layer farms in Southern Mozambique and identified potential risk factors for total coliform (TC) and Escherichia coli contamination of drinking water. In 20 farms, 57 samples were collected and examined for pH, nitrate content (NC), nitrite level (NL) and total hardness contents (TH). Furthermore, TC and E. coli growth were assessed at 37 °C. One hundred per cent of the drinking water was of acceptable quality in terms of pH (6.5–8.5), NC (50 mg/L) and NL (3 mg/L). Total hardness contents exceeded the recommended standard in 37.5% of borehole water samples and 91.7% of tap water samples, respectively. Total coliform and E. coli were found in 40% and 15% of water samples. Tap water samples had the greatest contamination, with TC and E. coli levels of 41.7% and 16.7%, respectively. Although not statistically significant, sampling from the beginning of the nipple line (p = 0.101, OR = 7.357, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.678–79.886) and not cleaning the rearing equipment regularly (p = 0.098, OR = 3.966, 95% CI: 0.766–20.280) were factors affecting the TC growth. Sampling from the tank water source (p = 0.001, OR = 0.005, 95% CI: 0.000–0.121) and borehole water source (OR = 13 585) and not cleaning the equipment consistently (p = 0.073, OR = 9.682, 95% CI: 0.810–115.68) were all factors affecting E. coli growth. It is concluded that the TH and microbiological quality of the drinking water of the study region are inadequate. Regular water quality assessments should be incorporated into Mozambican layer farm management to limit the potential for health concerns, and farmers should thoroughly clean and disinfect their rearing equipment. Contribution: We should incorporate regular water quality assessments into Mozambican layer farm management to limit the potential for health concerns, and farmers should thoroughly clean and disinfect their rearing equipment.

Water quality is critical for poultry farming. This study assessed the physical, chemical and microbiological quality of drinking water in small-layer farms in Southern Mozambique and identified potential risk factors for total coliform (TC) and Escherichia coli contamination of drinking water. In 20 farms, 57 samples were collected and examined for pH, nitrate content (NC), nitrite level (NL) and total hardness contents (TH). Furthermore, TC and E. coli growth were assessed at 37 °C. One hundred per cent of the drinking water was of acceptable quality in terms of pH (6.5–8.5), NC (50 mg/L) and NL (3 mg/L). Total hardness contents exceeded the recommended standard in 37.5% of borehole water samples and 91.7% of tap water samples, respectively. Total coliform and E. coli were found in 40% and 15% of water samples. Tap water samples had the greatest contamination, with TC and E. coli levels of 41.7% and 16.7%, respectively. Although not statistically significant, sampling from the beginning of the nipple line (p = 0.101, OR = 7.357, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.678–79.886) and not cleaning the rearing equipment regularly (p = 0.098, OR = 3.966, 95% CI: 0.766–20.280) were factors affecting the TC growth. Sampling from the tank water source (p = 0.001, OR = 0.005, 95% CI: 0.000–0.121) and borehole water source (OR = 13 585) and not cleaning the equipment consistently (p = 0.073, OR = 9.682, 95% CI: 0.810–115.68) were all factors affecting E. coli growth. It is concluded that the TH and microbiological quality of the drinking water of the study region are inadequate. Regular water quality assessments should be incorporated into Mozambican layer farm management to limit the potential for health concerns, and farmers should thoroughly clean and disinfect their rearing equipment.Contribution: We should incorporate regular water quality assessments into Mozambican layer farm management to limit the potential for health concerns, and farmers should thoroughly clean and disinfect their rearing equipment.

Vaccination is an important disease prevention and control measure; however, vaccine adoption by livestock farmers in Tanzania is still low. This cross-sectional study examined the challenges to vaccine use faced by livestock owners and animal health professionals (AHPs) in Tanzania. A questionnaire was administered to 216 households that kept small ruminants and poultry and 19 AHPs’ data were collected electronically via the survey platform Qualtrics, and descriptive statistics were performed. Households with poultry reported vaccinating mostly against Newcastle disease (91.7%), fowl pox (48.1%) and Gumboro disease (37.0%), whilst households with small ruminants reported contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (62.2%), sheep and goat pox (17.1%), foot-and-mouth disease (7.3%) and peste des petits ruminants (7.3%). The households’ decision to vaccinate was mostly influenced by knowledge of diseases (82.4%), disease history on the farm (69.4%) and vaccine price (63.4%). Most households (54.6%) experienced challenges when purchasing vaccines, including high vaccine cost (78.0%), long distance from vaccine source (61.0%) and vaccine unavailability (21.2%). The findings suggest that improving the knowledge of livestock owners regarding the priority diseases and the benefits of vaccination, establishing more vaccine suppliers, improving vaccine distribution and access and training AHPs and households on appropriate vaccine storage and handling are necessary to improve vaccine adoption and ensure vaccine quality and effectiveness.

Vaccination is an important disease prevention and control measure; however, vaccine adoption by livestock farmers in Tanzania is still low. This cross-sectional study examined the challenges to vaccine use faced by livestock owners and animal health professionals (AHPs) in Tanzania. A questionnaire was administered to 216 households that kept small ruminants and poultry and 19 AHPs’ data were collected electronically via the survey platform Qualtrics, and descriptive statistics were performed. Households with poultry reported vaccinating mostly against Newcastle disease (91.7%), fowl pox (48.1%) and Gumboro disease (37.0%), whilst households with small ruminants reported contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (62.2%), sheep and goat pox (17.1%), foot-and-mouth disease (7.3%) and peste des petits ruminants (7.3%). The households’ decision to vaccinate was mostly influenced by knowledge of diseases (82.4%), disease history on the farm (69.4%) and vaccine price (63.4%). Most households (54.6%) experienced challenges when purchasing vaccines, including high vaccine cost (78.0%), long distance from vaccine source (61.0%) and vaccine unavailability (21.2%). The findings suggest that improving the knowledge of livestock owners regarding the priority diseases and the benefits of vaccination, establishing more vaccine suppliers, improving vaccine distribution and access and training AHPs and households on appropriate vaccine storage and handling are necessary to improve vaccine adoption and ensure vaccine quality and effectiveness.

Background: Diarrheagenic E. coli (DEC) strains are a major cause of diarrheal diseases in both developed and developing countries. Healthy asymptomatic animals may be reservoirs of zoonotic DEC, which may enter the food chain via the weak points in hygiene practices. Aim: We investigated the prevalence of DEC along the pig production continuum from farm-to-fork. Methods: A total of 417 samples were collected from specific points along the pig production system, that is, farm, transport, abattoir and food. E. coli was isolated and enumerated using Colilert. Ten isolates from each Quanti-tray were selected randomly and phenotypically identified using eosin methylene blue agar selective media. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to confirm the species and to classify them into the various diarrheagenic pathotypes. Antimicrobial susceptibility was determined against a panel of 20 antibiotics using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method and EUCAST guideline. Results: The final sample size consisted of 1044 isolates, of which 45.40% (474/1044) were DEC and 73% (762/1044) were multidrug-resistant. Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) was the most predominant DEC at all the sampling sites. Conclusion: The presence of DEC in food animal production environments and food of animal origin could serve as reservoirs for transmitting these bacteria to humans, especially in occupationally exposed workers and via food. Adherence to good hygienic practices along the pig production continuum is essential for mitigating the risk of transmission and infection, and ensuring food safety.

Background: Diarrheagenic E. coli (DEC) strains are a major cause of diarrheal diseases in both developed and developing countries. Healthy asymptomatic animals may be reservoirs of zoonotic DEC, which may enter the food chain via the weak points in hygiene practices.Aim: We investigated the prevalence of DEC along the pig production continuum from farm-to-fork.Methods: A total of 417 samples were collected from specific points along the pig production system, that is, farm, transport, abattoir and food. E. coli was isolated and enumerated using Colilert. Ten isolates from each Quanti-tray were selected randomly and phenotypically identified using eosin methylene blue agar selective media. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to confirm the species and to classify them into the various diarrheagenic pathotypes. Antimicrobial susceptibility was determined against a panel of 20 antibiotics using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method and EUCAST guideline.Results: The final sample size consisted of 1044 isolates, of which 45.40% (474/1044) were DEC and 73% (762/1044) were multidrug-resistant. Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) was the most predominant DEC at all the sampling sites.Conclusion: The presence of DEC in food animal production environments and food of animal origin could serve as reservoirs for transmitting these bacteria to humans, especially in occupationally exposed workers and via food. Adherence to good hygienic practices along the pig production continuum is essential for mitigating the risk of transmission and infection, and ensuring food safety.