Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are an important group of additives in plastics that increase resistance to ignition and slow down the rate of burning. Because of concerns about their environmental and human health impacts, however, some of the most widely employed BFRs, including hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and commercial mixtures of penta-, octa- and deca- (poly)bromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs), have been restricted or phased out. In this review, the oceanic sources and pathways of PBDEs, the most widely used BFRs, are evaluated and quantified, with particular focus on emissions due to migration from plastics into the atmosphere versus emissions associated with the input of retarded or contaminated plastics themselves. Calculations based on available measurements of PBDEs in the environment suggest that 3.5 and 135 tonnes of PBDEs are annually deposited in the ocean when scavenged by aerosols and through air-water gas exchange, respectively, with rivers contributing a further ∼40 tonnes. Calculations based on PBDE migration from plastic products in use or awaiting or undergoing disposal yield similar net inputs to the ocean but indicate a relatively rapid decline over the next two decades in association with the reduction in the production and recycling of these chemicals. Estimates associated with the input of PBDEs to the ocean when “bound” to marine plastics and microplastics range from about 360 to 950 tonnes per year based on the annual production of plastics and PBDEs over the past decade, and from about 20 to 50 tonnes per annum based on the abundance and distribution of PBDEs in marine plastic litter. Because of the persistence and pervasiveness of plastics in the ocean and diffusion coefficients for PBDEs on the order of 10⁻²⁰ to 10⁻²⁷ m² s⁻¹, microplastics are likely to act as a long-term source of these chemicals though gradual migration. Locally, however, and more important from an ecotoxicological perspective, PBDE migration may be significantly enhanced when physically and chemically weathered microplastics are exposed to the oily digestive fluids conditions of fish and seabirds.

Currently, 1.3 billion tonnes of food are thrown away each year, most of which are incinerated or landfilled causing large environmental, social, and economic issues. Therefore, the utilisation of food waste as biofertilisers, such as composts and digestates, is a solution to reduce the problems created by incineration and landfilling whilst simultaneously amending soils. The improper disposal of food wastes and bulking materials can contribute to high levels of contaminants within the end-product. Moreover, the food waste and bulking materials, themselves, may contain trace amounts of contaminants. These contaminants tend to have long half-lives, are easily mobile within soil and plants, can accumulate within the food supply chain, and have moderate to high levels of toxicity. This review aims to examine the current and emerging contaminants of high concern that impact the quality of food-waste fertilisers. The paper presents the volume of current and emerging contaminants of plastics, other physical (particulate) contaminants, heavy metals, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and pathogens within food-waste composts and digestates. Due to the large extent of organic chemical contaminants and the unknown level of toxicity and persistence, the risk assessment of organic chemical contaminants in the food-supply chain remains largely unknown. This study has presented available data from literature of various contaminants found in food waste, and composts and digestates derived from food waste, and evaluated the data with current regulations globally. Overall, to reduce contaminants in composts and digestates, more studies are required on the implementation of proper disposal separation, effective composting and digestion practices, increased screening of physical contaminants, development of compostable plastics, and increased regulatory policies on emerging, problematic contaminants. Moreover, examination of emerging contaminants in food-waste composts and digestates is needed to ensure food security and reduce future human-health risks.

Microplastics (MPs) pollution frequently co-occur with Microcystis-dominated blooms in freshwaters, but MPs effects on toxigenic Microcystis growth and effect mechanisms remained poorly understood. This study used 0.5 μm-size polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) to explore dose- and time-dependent effects of single and combined MPs (i.e., PE + PVC) on toxigenic Microcystis growth and cellular responses during 16 day-test. Results showed that Microcystis growth and cellular responses depended on exposure time, MPs dose and type. MPs elicited hormesis effect in early stage at low dose (5 mg/L), while increasingly inhibited growth with rising PVC or PE + PVC dose but declining PE dose (5, 10, 50 mg/L) in mid-late stage, with stress intensity of PE + PVC > PVC > PE. Further analyses revealed unobvious cell damage under MPs stress, largely because antioxidases were increasingly activated as MPs stress enhanced. Unicellular MCs release ability during mid stage almost coincided with total/bound amount and each fraction of ex-poly and ex-pro trends under MPs stress. Significant positive relationship existed between MCs release ability and ex-poly/ex-pro fractions and total amount of Microcystis cells along mid-late stage under MPs stress, validating that ex-poly/ex-pro production was regulated as a result of MCs release. Besides, unicellular MCs production ability was generally positively correlated with soluble, tightly-bound and total ex-poly and ex-pro at late stage. These suggested that cellular antioxidants, MCs production/release ability and ex-poly/ex-pro production of Microcystis could be coupled to exert integrated defense against MPs stress to protect surviving cells in Microcystis population. These findings are crucial for acquiring the fate of Microcystis-dominated blooms co-occurring with MPs pollution, and reasonably assessing and managing involved eco-risks.

The settling of microplastics (MPs) is crucial for their removal from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and sedimentation in static waterbodies, where they can accumulate in bottom sediments. Biofilm formation on MPs enhances their aggregation with other particles, thereby changing their density and size and altering their settling rates. However, only a few studies have investigated the settling of MPs of different sizes and materials. Specifically, the settling of small-sized MPs (<150 μm) has been poorly documented. In this study, cylindrical and fragmented particles of four polymer types (high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)) were used to investigate the settling or floating of reference MPs (20–130 μm) in a custom-made column that simulated a primary sedimentation tank in a typical WWTP before and after incubation in wastewater influent. The settling velocity of the reference MP particles was strongly influenced by the particle size and density. The settled fractions of all the cylindrical reference MPs increased significantly (up to 5 times) due to biofilm formation at overflow velocities of 0.15, 0.26, and 0.40 mm s⁻¹. This was observed even for HDPE and PP (density <1 g cm⁻³) after biofilm formation. The fragmented reference MPs showed complex and rather unpredictable behavior, possibly due to their irregular shape. Generally, the settling of pristine PS and PET in the laboratory tests was consistent with the theoretical predictions obtained using Stokes’ law. The experimental findings of this study can be used to develop models that predict the removal efficiencies of MPs in WWTPs and to estimate the sinking of MPs to bottom sediments of static waterbodies.

Marine microplastics (MPs) pose a risk to human health through accumulation in maricultural organisms, particularly bivalves. Various studies have reported the presence of MP particles in Pacific oysters (Crasostrea gigas). In this study, we investigated the size-specific ingestion and egestion of polystyrene (PS) MPs by Pacific oysters. The cultivation density of C. gigas was maintained at 1 L of filtered seawater per oyster (n = 5) during the MP ingestion and egestion experiments. On exposure to 300 n/L of PS MP fragments for 7 d, 60.4% of the PS was ingested within 6 h (7.25 × 10² ± 1.36 × 10² n/indv.), and the ingestion was saturated at 12 h (1.2 × 10³ ± 2.2 × 10² n/indv.) in C. gigas. The maximum MP ingestion capacity (Igₘₐₓ) of a single Pacific oyster was 73.0 ± 16.3 n/g wet weight. Further, 62.9% of the PS MP particles were egested for 7 d from the saturated single C. gigas. Ingestion and egestion varied according to the PS MP size. In the case of <50 μm PS MP, ingestion rate was low but MP amount and net-ingestion efficiency was significantly higher than other PS MP sizes. In addition, egestion, egestion rate, and net-egestion efficiency for <50 μm PS MPs were significantly higher than other PS MP sizes. Therefore, smaller MPs (<50 μm) normally exhibit the highest ingestion and egestion rates; therefore, the 50–300 μm size fraction exhibited the highest residual possibility (particles >1000 μm were excluded). Additionally, considering the net-egestion efficiency, the most economical and efficient depuration period was 24 h. This study clarifies the size-specific MP accumulation in oysters, and the egestion results suggest that the potential risk of MPs to human health through the intake of maricultural products could be reduced by depuration.

The accumulation of microplastics in marine organisms is an emerging concern. Due to trophic transfer, the safety of seafood is under investigation in view of the potential negative effects of microplastics on human health. In this study, market samples of Manila clams (Ruditapes philippinarum) from South Korea were segregated into two groups of considerably different size (p < 0.05), namely small clams with shell length of 40.69 ± 3.97 mm, and large clams of shell length 51.19 ± 2.86 mm. Comparative profiling of the number, size, shape, and polymer type of microplastics were performed using μFTIR imaging and Nile red staining. Overall, μFTIR detected only 1559 microplastics while 1996 microplastics were counted based on staining from 61 Manila clams (30 small and 31 large), leading to an overestimation of 18 to 75 %. Comparable microplastics concentration, based on μFTIR, were observed at 2.70 ± 1.66 MP/g or 15.64 ± 9.25 MP/individual for the small samples, and 3.65 ± 1.59 MP/g or 41.63 ± 16.90 MP/individual for the large ones (p > 0.05). Particle diameters of 20–100 μm was the most dominant, accounting for 44.6 % and 46.5 % of all microplastics from the small and large groups, respectively. Particles, with a circularity (resemblance to a circle) value between 0.6 and 1.0, were the most prevalent, followed by fragments and fibers. At least 50 % of microplastics from the small and large samples were polystyrene, making it the most abundant polymer type. Despite the substantial difference in the size of the animals, only a weak to moderate correlation was observed between microplastics content and the physical attributes of the clams such as shell length and weight, (soft) tissue weight, and total weight (Spearman's coefficient < 0.5). The estimated intake of microplastics by the Korean population was 1232 MP/person/year via small clams, 1663 MP/person/year via large clams, and 1489 MP/person/year via clams independent of size.

Interactions of microplastics and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) associated with Atlantic salmon farming were studied to assess the potential role of microplastics in relation to the environmental impact of aquaculture. HDPE, PP, PET and PVC microplastics placed for 3 months near fish farms sorbed POPs from aquafeeds. PET and PVC sorbed significantly higher levels of dioxins and PCBs compared to HDPE, while the levels sorbed to PP were intermediate and did not differ statistically from PET, PVC or HDPE. In addition, the composition of dioxins accumulated in caged blue mussels did not reflect the patterns observed on the microplastics, probably due to polymer-specific affinity of POPs. In conclusion, the results of this study show that microplastics occurring near fish farms can sorb aquafeed-associated POPs and, therefore, microplastics could potentially be vectors of such chemicals in the marine environment and increase the environmental impact of fish farming.

The present study was carried out to quantify microplastic prevalence among 20 sandy beaches on the Gujarat coast. Beaches were categorised into three different classes, viz. low-impacted sites, moderately impacted sites, and highly impacted sites based on anthropogenic pressure. Microplastic (MP) (≤ 5 mm) contamination on the beaches varied with an average of 1.4 MPs/kg to 26 MPs/kg sediment. Sutrapada site-1 and Porbandar showed the highest and lowest mean abundance of microplastics, respectively, among 20 selected beaches. Out of the total assessed microplastics, threads were the maximum (89.98%), followed by the films (4.75%), fragments (3.36%) and foam (1.89%). In terms of colour and size, different microplastics were recorded in this study. The chemical composition of microplastics was identified by ATR-FTIR as polypropylene (47.5%), polyethylene (26%), and polystyrene (25%). Tourism and fishing activities are the possible sources of higher microplastic contamination at highly impacted sites.

Sewage treatment works and stormwater outfalls were identified as sources of microplastics in the Victoria Harbor, Hong Kong. Local treated sewage and stormwater effluents contained up to 10,816 pieces per m³ of microplastics, mainly polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), being discharged at an average rate of 3.5 mg per capita daily. Bioaccumulation of microplastics in marine fish collected from the vicinity of the effluent discharge outfalls was also studied. The temporal variations of microplastics in terms of abundance, shape and polymer type in fish were found consistent with those in the effluents and surface water. The abundance of microplastics was significantly higher in March 2017 (dry season). Microplastics in fish were predominantly in fiber form and identified as PE and PP. The observed temporal variations suggest uptake of microplastics by fish from the treated sewage and stormwater effluents.