Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is a widespread tolerant forest tree-species; however, its adaptability to environmental change differs among sites with various buffering capacity. In this study, we compared the spatial effects of aridity index (AI) and nitrogen deposition (ND) on biomass density in natural and man-made pine stands of differing soil fertility using geographically weighted multiple lag regression. Soil fertility was defined using soil series as zonal trophic (27.9%), acidic (48.2%), gleyed (15.2%) and as azonal exposed (2.5%), maple (2.4%), ash (0.8%), wet (2.1%) and peat (0.9%) under pine stands in the Czech Republic (Central Europe; 4290.5 km²; 130–1298 m a.s.l.). Annual AI and ND in every pine stand were estimated by intersection between raster and vector from 1 × 1 km grid for years 2000, 2003, 2007 and 2010 of severe non-specific forest damage spread. Biomass density was obtained from a MODIS 250 × 250 m raster using the enhanced vegetation index (EVI) for years 2000–2015, with a decrease in EVI indicating non-specific damage. Environmental change was assessed by comparing predictor values at EVI time t and t+λ. Non-specific damage was registered over 51.9% of total forest area. Less than 8.8% of damaged stands were natural and the rest (91.2%) of damaged stands were man-made. Pure pine stands were more damaged than mixed. The ND effect prevailed up to 2007, while AI dominated later. Temporal increasing ND effect under AI effectiveness led to the most significant pine stand damage in 2008 and 2014. Predictors from 2000 to 2007 afflicted 58.5% of non-specifically damaged stands at R² 0.09–0.76 (median 0.38), but from 2000 to 2010 afflicted 57.1% of the stands at R² 0.16–0.75 (median 0.40). The most damaged stands occurred on acidic sites. Mixed forest and sustainable management on natural sites seem as effective remediation reducing damage by ND.

Metabolic syndrome is an important risk factor for non-communicable diseases, particularly type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, and stroke. Long-term exposure to greenspace could be protective of metabolic syndrome, but evidence for such an association is lacking. Accordingly, we investigated the association between long-term exposure to greenspace and risk of metabolic syndrome.The present longitudinal study was based on data from four clinical examinations between 1997 and 2013 in 6076 participants of the Whitehall II study, UK (aged 45–69 years at baseline). Long-term exposure to greenspace was assessed by satellite-based indices of greenspace including Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Vegetation Continuous Field (VCF) averaged across buffers of 500 and 1000 m surrounding the participants’ residential location at each follow-up. The ascertainment of metabolic syndrome was based on the World Health Organization (WHO) definition. Hazard ratios for metabolic syndrome were estimated using Cox proportional hazards regression models, controlling for age, sex, ethnicity, lifestyle factors, and socioeconomic status.Higher residential surrounding greenspace was associated with lower risk of metabolic syndrome. An interquartile range increase in NDVI and VCF in the 500 m buffer was associated with 13% (95% confidence interval (CI): 1%, 23%) and 14% (95% CI: 5%, 22%) lower risk of metabolic syndrome, respectively. Greater exposure to greenspace was also associated with each individual component of metabolic syndrome, including a lower risk of high levels of fasting glucose, large waist circumference, high triglyceride levels, low HDL cholesterol, and hypertension. The association between residential surrounding greenspace and metabolic syndrome may have been mediated by physical activity and exposure to air pollution.The findings of the present study suggest that middle-aged and older adults living in greener neighbourhoods are at lower risk of metabolic syndrome than those living in neighbourhoods with less greenspace.

Ecosystem services are present everywhere, green vegetation coverage (or green areas) is one of the primary sources of ecosystem services considering urban areas sustainability and peoples urban life quality. Urban vegetation cover loss decreases the capacity of nature to provision ecosystem services; the loss of urban vegetation is also observed within the Amazon. This study aims at identifying urban vegetation loss and relate it to the provision of ecosystem services of reduction of air quality, reduction of air pollution, and climate regulation. Urban vegetation coverage loss was calculated using NDVI on LANDSAT 5 imagery over a 23-year period from 1986 to 2009. NDVI thresholds were arbitrarily selected, and complemented by in locus observation, to establish guidelines for quantitative (area) and qualitative (density) evolution of green cover, divided in six different categories, named as water, bare soil, poor vegetation, moderate vegetation, dense vegetation and very dense vegetation. Data on air pollution, noise pollution and temperature were outsourced from previous works. Measurement show a significant loss of very dense, dense and moderate vegetation coverage and an increase in poor vegetation and bare soil areas, in accordance to increase in air and noise pollution, and local temperature, and provides positive refashions between the loss of urban green coverage and decrease in ecosystem services.

Long-term exposure to air pollution has been associated with increased natural-cause mortality, but the evidence on diagnoses-specific mortality outcomes is limited. Few studies have examined the potential synergistic effects of exposure to pollutants and greenness. We investigated the association between exposure to air pollution and greenness with nervous system related mortality, cardiometabolic and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) mortality in Greece, using an ecological study design. We collected socioeconomic and mortality data for 1035 municipal units from the 2011 Census. Annual PM₂.₅, NO₂, BC and O₃ concentrations for 2010 were predicted at 100 × 100 m grids by hybrid land use regression models. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) was used for greenness. We applied single and two-exposure Poisson regression models on standardized mortality rates accounting for spatial autocorrelation. We assessed interactions between pollutants and greenness. An interquartile range increase in PM₂.₅, NO₂ and BC was associated with increased risk in mortality from diseases of the nervous system (relative risk (RR): 1.14, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.01, 1.28); 1.03 (95% CI: 0.99, 1.07); 1.05 (95% CI: 1.00, 1.10) respectively) and from cerebrovascular disease (RR: 1.14, 95% CI: 1.10, 1.18); 1.02 (95% CI: 1.01, 1.04); 1.02 (95% CI: 1.00, 1.04) respectively). PM₂.₅ was associated with ischemic heart disease mortality (RR: 1.05, 95% CI: 1.01, 1.10). We estimated inverse associations for all outcomes with O₃ and for mortality from diseases of the nervous system or COPD with greenness. Estimates were mostly robust to co-exposure adjustment. Interactions were identified between NDVI and O₃ or PM₂.₅ on mortality from the diseases of the nervous system, with higher effect estimates in greener areas.Our findings support the adverse effects of air pollution and the beneficial role of greenness on cardiovascular and nervous system related mortality. Further research is needed on diabetes mellitus.

Residential green space and neighborhood walkability are important foundations of a healthy and sustainable city. Yet, their associations with atherosclerosis, the disease underlying clinical coronary heart disease (CHD), is unknown, especially in susceptible populations. We aim to explore the associations of exposure to residential green space and neighborhood walkability with coronary atherosclerosis. In this study of 2021 adults with suspected CHD, we evaluated the associations of exposure to green space (using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index [NDVI] and enhanced vegetation index [EVI] surrounding each participant's home) and neighborhood walkability (using walkability index and number of parks near home) with atherosclerosis (using coronary artery calcium score, CAC) using linear regression model adjusted for individual-level characteristics. Mediation analysis was further applied to explore potential mechanisms through the pathways of physical activity, air pollution, and psychological stress. In the primary model, an interquartile increase in annual mean NDVI and EVI within the 1-km area was associated with −15.8% (95%CI: 28.7%, −0.7%), and −18.6% (95%Cl: 31.3%, −3.6%) lower CAC score, respectively. However, an interquartile increase in the walkability index near home was associated with a 7.4% (95% CI: 0.1%, 15.2%) higher CAC score. The combined exposure to a green space area in a 1-km area and the walkability index were inversely associated with atherosclerosis, albeit with a smaller magnitude than a single-exposure model. The findings from a mediation analysis suggested that increased physical exercise and ameliorated particulate matter <2.5 μm (PM₂.₅) may partially contribute to the relationship between green space and atherosclerosis, and for walkability index, partially explained by increased PM₂.₅ exposure. Our study suggested a beneficial association between green space and atherosclerosis, but an adverse association between neighborhood walkability and atherosclerosis. Therefore, urban development that aims to improve neighborhood walkability should jointly account for enhancing green space properties from a public health perspective.

Residential greenspace quality may be more important for people's mental health than the quantity of greenspace. Existing literature mainly focuses on greenspace quantity and is limited to exposure metrics based on an over-head perspective (i.e., remote sensing data). Thus, whether greenspace quantity and quality influence mental health through different mechanisms remains unclear. To compare the mechanisms through which greenspace quantity and quality influence mental health, we used both remote sensing and street view data. Questionnaire data from 1003 participants in Guangzhou, China were analysed cross-sectionally. Mental health was assessed through the World Health Organization Well-Being Index (WHO-5). Greenspace quantity was measured by both remote sensing-based Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Street View Greenness-quantity (SVG-quantity). Greenspace quality was measured by both Street View Greenness-quality (SVG-quality) and questionnaire-based self-reported greenspace quality. Structural equation models were used to assess mechanisms through which neighbourhood greenspace exposure has an influence on mental health. Stress, social cohesion, physical activity and life satisfaction were found to mediate both SVG-quality - WHO-5 scores and self-reported greenspace quality - WHO-5 scores associations. However, only NO₂ (nitrogen dioxide) mediated the association between NDVI and WHO-5 scores, while NO₂, perceived pollution and social cohesion mediated the association between SVG-quantity and WHO-5 scores. The mechanisms through which neighbourhood greenspace exposure influences mental health may vary across different exposure assessment strategies. Greenspace quantity influences mental health through reducing harm from pollution, while greenspace quality influences mental health through restoring and building capacities.

Heatwaves and greenness have been shown to affect health, but the evidence on their joint effects is limited. We aim to assess the associations of the combined exposure to greenness and heatwaves. We utilized five waves (February 2000–October 2014) of the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS), a prospective cohort of older adults aged 65. We defined heatwaves as the daily maximum temperature ≥92.5th percentile with duration ≥3 days. We calculated the number of heatwave days in one year before death to and cumulative Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) during follow-up to assess individual long-term exposure to heatwaves and greenness. Cox proportional hazards models were used to assess the effects of greenness, heatwaves, and their interaction on mortality, adjusted for covariates. We conducted subgroup analyses by residence, gender, and age. There were 20,758 participants in our study, totaling 67,312 person-years of follow-up. The mean NDVI was 0·41 (SD 0.13), and the mean number of heatwave days was 8.92 (2.04). In the adjusted model, the mortality hazard ratio (HR) for each 3-day increase in heatwave days was 1.04 (95% CI 1.04, 1.05), each 0.1-unit decrease in cumulative NDVI was 1.06 (1.05, 1.07). In the adjusted model with an interaction term, the HR for the interaction term was 1.01 (1.01, 1.02) with a p-value less than 0.001. In our subgroup analyses, the HR for each 3-day increase in heatwave days was higher in urban areas than in rural areas (1.06 vs. 1.03), and the HR for 0.1-unit decrease in NDVI was higher in urban areas than in rural areas (1.08 vs. 1.04). Greenness can protect against the effect of heatwaves on mortality, and heatwaves affect the health effects of greenness. Urban dwellers have a higher response to the detrimental effect of heatwaves and a higher marginal benefit from greenness exposure.

Evidence suggests that residential greenness may be protective of high blood pressure, but there is scarcity of evidence on the associations between greenness around schools and blood pressure among children. We aimed to investigate this association in China. Our study included 9354 children from 62 schools in the Seven Northeastern Cities Study. Greenness around each child’s school was measured by NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) and SAVI (Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index). Particulate matter ≤ 1 μm (PM1) concentrations were estimated by spatiotemporal models and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations were collected from air monitoring stations. Associations between greenness and blood pressure were determined by generalized linear and logistic mixed-effect models. Mediation by air pollution was assessed using mediation analysis. Higher greenness was consistently associated with lower blood pressure. An increase of 0.1 in NDVI corresponded to a reduction in SBP of 1.39 mmHg (95% CI: 1.86, −0.93) and lower odds of hypertension (OR = 0.76, 95% CI: 0.69, 0.82). Stronger associations were observed in children with higher BMI. Ambient PM1 and NO2 mediated 33.0% and 10.9% of the association between greenness and SBP, respectively. In summary, greater greenness near schools had a beneficial effect on blood pressure, particularly in overweight or obese children in China. The associations might be partially mediated by air pollution. These results might have implications for policy makers to incorporate more green space for both aesthetic and health benefits.

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is associated with adverse short- and long-term health outcomes among mothers and their offspring. GDM affects 0.6%–15% of pregnancies worldwide and its incidence is increasing. However, intervention strategies are lacking for GDM. Previous studies indicated a protective association between greenspace and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), while few studies have explored the association between greenness and GDM. This study aimed to investigate the association between residential greenness and GDM among women from 40 clinical centers in Guangdong province, south China. The study population comprised 5237 pregnant mothers of fetuses and infants without birth defects, from 2004 to 2016. There were n = 157 diagnosed with GDM according to World Health Organization criteria. We estimated residential greenness using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), derived from satellite imagery using a spatial-statistical model. Associations between greenness during pregnancy and GDM were assessed by confounder-adjusted random effects log-binomial regression models, with participating centers as the random effect. One interquartile increments of NDVI₂₅₀ₘ, NDVI₅₀₀ₘ and NDVI₁₀₀₀ₘ were associated with 13% (RR = 0.87, 95%CI: 0.87–0.87), 8% (RR = 0.92, 95%CI: 0.91–0.92) and 3% (RR = 0.97, 95%CI: 0.97–0.97) lower risks for GDM, respectively. However, NDVI₃₀₀₀ₘ was not significantly associated with GDM (RR = 0.96, 95%CI: 0.78–1.19). The risk for GDM decreased monotonically with greater NDVI. The protective effect of greenness on GDM was stronger among women with lower socioeconomic status and in environments with a lower level air pollutants. Our results suggest that greenness might provide an effective intervention to decrease GDM. Greenness and residential proximity to greenspace should be considered in community planning to improve maternal health outcomes.

Trace elements can be toxic when they cannot be easily removed after entering an ecosystem, so a long-term assessment is fundamental to guide ecosystem restoration after catastrophic pollution. In 1998, a pyrite mining accident in Aznalcóllar (south-western Spain) spilled toxic waste over a large area of the Guadiamar river basin, where, after restoration tasks, the Guadiamar Green Corridor was established. Eight years after the mine accident (2005–2006), the ground-dwelling insectivorous lizard Psammodromus algirus registered high trace-element levels within the study area compared to specimens from a nearby unpolluted control site. In 2017, 20 years after the accident, we repeated the sampling for this lizard species and also quantified trace elements in vegetation as well as in arthropod samples in order to identify remnant trace-element accumulation with the aim of assessing the transfer of these elements through the trophic web. We found remnant trace-element contamination in organisms of the polluted site compared to those from the unpolluted site. All trace-element concentrations were higher in arthropods than in plants, suggesting these compounds bioaccumulate through the trophic web. Lizards from the polluted areas had higher As, Cd, and Hg concentrations than did individuals from the unpolluted area. Lizard abundance between sampling periods (2005–06 and 2017) did not vary in unpolluted transects but strongly declined at polluted ones. By contrast, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index indicated that in the study period, the vegetation was similar at the two sampling sites. These results suggest that, 20 years after the accident, the trace-element pollution could be the cause of a severe demographic decline of the lizard in the polluted area.