PURPOSE OF REVIEW: In this paper, we critically review the current state of nutritional management strategies to reduce methane emissions resulting from enteric fermentation in livestock production. In this context, it highlights the novel strategy regarding the use of macroalgal- and microalgal-derived feed additives. RECENT FINDINGS: Several feed management strategies for ruminants focus on the inclusion of nutritional supplements, increasing proportion of starch, or supplementation with high-energy lipids. These strategies aim to improve animal productivity, whilst at the same time reduce methane emissions. Algae supplements are currently investigated as novel ingredients for decreasing methanogenesis, with the potential production of algal biomass also contributing to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, utilisation of algal biomass as a feed concentrate in dietary supplementation presents a sustainable and environmentally friendly strategy. This review summarises the current stage of research on dietary strategies and their influences on the metabolic processes during enteric fermentation. This information is essential for developing strategies to mitigate methane emissions in the livestock industry. We specifically present the opportunities that algae could offer as a feed additive for methanogenic reduction in cattle. The data compiled from the peer-reviewed literature revealed synergistic effects of algal biomass on methane reduction and animal productivity. However, the challenges regarding the mass cultivation of macro- and microalgae were noticed. Considering the diversity of algal species, future research should increase screening efforts to include more species and dosage evaluation, along with efforts to see if such effects are sustained over time.

Improving digestibility, fermentation characteristics, and reducing greenhouse biogases to protect the environment without the use of synthetic materials is an important goal of modern-day farming and nutritionist. Plant extracts are capable of solving these. This is due to the digestive enzymes and the bioactive components capable of performing antimicrobial functions inherent in these plants. This study was aimed to investigate the effect of standard maize substrate treated with selected herbs and spices extracts on ruminal environmental biogas production and pressure during fermentation via biogas production technique. Herbs (Azadirachta indica leaves (T1), Moringa oleifera leaves (T2), Ocimum gratissimum leaves (T3) and spices (Allium sativum bulb (T4), Zingiber officinale rhizome (T5)) were harvested, air dried, and milled using standard procedures. Methanolic extracts of the herbs and spices were prepared and used as additives at different concentrations (50, 100, and 150 μL) to the maize substrate for in vitro biogas production. Data were analyzed using regression analysis. There were significant (P < 0.05) differences across all the treatments on the volume and pressure of biogas. The pressure and volume of biogas when compared with the levels tested showed differences (P < 0.05) across all the treatments for the prediction of volume from pressure of biogas. The pressure and volume of gas produced in vitro increased (P < 0.05) and biogases decreased (P < 0.05) by the substrate treated with herbs and spices but for the drum stick leaves which was similar for the levels of concentration tested. This means that the level tested had a pronounced mitigation effect on pressure of biogas and volume of biogas produced. It was concluded that the herb and spice extracts have the potential to improve rumen fermentation and reduce the production of biogases in ruminant diet.

The effects of a composite polyphenolic-rich extract (CPRE) on ruminal fermentation, nutrient utilisation, growth performance, excretion of nitrogen and phosphorus and methane emission were studied in growing buffaloes. Four herbal dry extracts prepared from Acacia arabica (babul; bark), Acacia catechu (cutch; bark), Punica granatum (pomegranate; peel) and Eugenia jambolana (Indian blackberry; seeds) were mixed in an equal proportion (1:1:1:1) to prepare the CPRE that contained mainly phenolic compounds (146 g/kg), flavonoids (41.7 g/kg) and saponins (40.5 g/kg). First, in vitro tests were performed for ruminal fermentation and feed degradability using ruminal fluid as inocula and CPRE at 0 to 40 g/kg substrate to decide an optimal dose of CPRE for an in vivo study on buffaloes. In the animal study, 20 buffaloes were randomly assigned to two groups (n = 10)—a control diet and a CPRE diet (control diet added with extra 20 g/kg of CPRE). The in vitro tests suggested that addition of CPRE at 20 g/kg substrate increased degradability of substrate, short-chain fatty acid concentration and propionate proportion, and reduced methane production, acetate proportion, acetate:propionate ratio and ammonia concentration in fermentation media, which were also noted in the rumen of buffaloes. Feeding CRPE to buffaloes did not affect feed intake, but increased daily body weight gain, dry matter and crude protein digestibility and nitrogen and phosphorus retention in the body. Total bacteria, methanogens and protozoal numbers were similar between two groups, but Fibrobacter succinogenes increased in the rumen of buffaloes fed CPRE. Concentrations of total, essential, non-essential and glucogenic amino acids were greater in the plasma of CPRE-fed buffaloes. Cell-mediated immune response improved in the CPRE-fed buffaloes compared with the control group. Estimated methane production and excretion of nitrogen and phosphorus per unit of body weight gain decreased in the CPRE group. The comprehensive results of this study clearly suggested that the composite polyphenol-rich feed additive at 20 g/kg diet improved growth performance, ruminal fermentation, immunity and plasma amino acids profile, whereas it reduced indicators of environmental impacts of buffalo production.

The effects of patchouli essential oil (PEO) as an alternative to antibiotics on ruminal methanogenesis, feed degradability, and enzyme activities were evaluated. The basal substrate was incubated without additives (control, CTL) and with monensin (MON, 6 μM/g DM) or patchouli essential oil (PEO, 90 μg/g DM) for 24 h. In three different runs, the gas production (GP) was recorded at 2, 4, 8, 12, and 24 h of incubation using a semi-automatic system. The results revealed that MON had decreased (P < 0.05) the net GP and CH₄ production and digestible and metabolizable energy relative to PEO supplementation. The in vitro truly degraded organic matter was not influenced by PEO application, while was reduced (P = 0.027) with MON. Both PEO and MON had similar reducing effect on the activity of carboxymethylcellulase (P = 0.030), in vitro truly degraded neutral detergent fiber (P = 0.010), NH₃-N concentrations (P = 0.012), acetate proportion (C2, P = 0.046), C2 to C3 ratio (P = 0.023), and total protozoal count (P = 0.017). Both additives recorded similar elevating potential on the α-amylase activity (P = 0.012), propionate (C3) proportion (P = 0.011), and microbial protein (P = 0.034) compared with CTL. Effects of MON and PEO on ruminal feed degradability, microbial enzyme activities, and total protozoa counts may be responsible for modifying rumen fermentation ecology. Addition of PEO may act as a desirable alternative rumen modifier for MON in ruminant diets.

Effects of dietary supplementation of Emblica officinalis fruit (Indian gooseberry) pomace (EFP), a waste from fruit processing plants and rich in polyphenolic compounds, were investigated for ruminal fermentation, nutrient utilization, methane production, and milk production performance in buffaloes. An in vitro experiment was conducted using 0 to 50 g/kg of EFP (six treatments) to select an optimum dose for feeding of buffaloes. Organic matter (OM) degradability, total volatile fatty acid concentration, and acetate proportion decreased, but propionate proportion increased at the higher doses (> 30 g/kg). Methane production also decreased at the higher doses (≥ 20 g/kg). In the in vivo study, ten lactating buffaloes were randomly allotted into control and EFP groups (n = 5/group). The control group was fed a total mixed ration, whereas the EFP group was fed the control ration along with EFP at 20 g/kg of dry matter (DM) intake for 120 days. Feeding of EFP to buffaloes improved milk yield (P < 0.01) and milk production efficiency (P < 0.01). Concentration of milk protein tended (P = 0.071) to increase and that of solid not fat increased (P = 0.032) due to the EFP feeding. Yields (kg/day) of milk fat (P = 0.026), solid not fat (P = 0.011), and protein (P = 0.002) were greater in the EFP group than the control group. Somatic cell count in milk decreased (P = 0.032) due to EFP feeding. Digestibility of ether extract (P < 0.001) increased and OM (P = 0.051) tended to increase by EFP feeding. Methane production (g/d), yield (g/kg DM intake or g/kg digestible organic matter intake), and intensity (g/kg milk, g/kg milk fat, or g/kg milk protein), and methane conversion rate (percentage of gross energy intake) were lower (P < 0.01) in the EFP group than the control group. For milk fatty acid (FA) profiles, total saturated FA proportion tended to be greater (P = 0.057) in the EFP group than the control group, which was due to increased (P = 0.045) proportion of total short- and medium-chain FA (C4 to C14). Feed intake, digestibility of crude protein and fiber, and total n-6, n-3, mono-unsaturated FA, poly-unsaturated FA, and long-chain FA (C18 to C24) proportions were similar between the groups. This study suggests that feeding of EFP at 20 g/kg DM intake increases milk production and decreases methane production and intensity without impacting health of buffaloes and FA profiles of milk. This is a win–win situation for sustainable and cleaner buffalo production by improving milk production and decreasing environmental burdens of greenhouse gas emission and EFP residue disposal problems.

Guava leaves (Psidium guajava, GL), a high-phenolic- and flavonoid-containing plant resource capable of substituting the high-quality forage, may help in mitigating ruminal methane (CH₄) emission without adverse impact on nutrient degradability if supplemented at an appropriate level. In order to test this hypothesis, rumen fermentation, CH₄ production, and nutrient degradability of GL either solely or as a substitute of berseem hay (Trifolium alexandrinum, BH) were evaluated in a diet containing 50:50 concentrate to roughage. Five different levels of GL (0, 12.5, 25, 37.5, and 50%) were tested in vitro after 24 h incubation using a semi-automated gas production (GP) system. The current findings indicated that merely the presence of GL resulted in significantly lower values for cumulative GP (P < 0.001), CH₄ emission (P < 0.05), truly degraded dry matter (TDDM; P < 0.001), truly degraded organic matter (TDOM; P < 0.001), and ammonia nitrogen (NH₃-N) concentration (P < 0.001); however, pH (P < 0.001) and partitioning factor (P < 0.001) were higher. The total and individual volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentrations were drastically declined with GL as compared to BH (P < 0.05). A negative linear correlation was recorded between the levels of GL and GP including CH₄ production (P < 0.05). The addition of GL up to 25% did not pose any negative effect on both TDDM and TDOM values along with NH₃-N concentration. In addition, the inclusion of GL up to 25% did not affect the total or individual VFA concentration. Conclusively, in a medium concentrate diet, use of 25% GL and 25% BH in animal diet could be a promising alternative for mitigating the CH₄ production without any deleterious effect on nutrient degradability.

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of supplemental bentonite on performance, blood, and fermentation characteristics in Zandi lambs. In experiment 1, 20 Zandi male lambs (initial BW, 17.5 ± 1.6 kg and 110 ± 5 days old) were randomly assigned into four groups of five animals in each. The experimental treatments were (1) control (no Pb and bentonite), (2) 15 mg/kg DM Pb as Pb acetate and no bentonite, (3) 15 mg/kg DM Pb as Pb acetate and 1.5% bentonite, and (4) 15 mg/kg DM Pb as Pb acetate and 3% bentonite. The dietary treatments had no significant effect on dry matter intake of experimental lambs. Feed required per unit of weight gain was more (P < 0.05) in lead-exposed lambs in group 2 compared to the control and bentonite supplemented groups. Serum glucose, urea nitrogen, cholesterol, HDL, and LDL concentrations was similar among the treatments. In experiment 2, an in vitro gas production technique was used to evaluate the effects of bentonite supplementation on the gas production parameters of lead-polluted diets. The rate and amount of gas production was higher for bentonite supplemented groups (P < 0.01). Asymptotic gas production (b), metabolizable energy, and concentration of short chain fatty acids were lower (P < 0.05) for lead-polluted non-supplemented diet (group 2) as compared to the bentonite supplemented and control groups. It was concluded that bentonite supplementation favorably modified ruminal fermentation pattern and improved feed conversion ratio in growing lead-exposed lambs.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of alkaloid extracts of Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) D.C. pods obtained by two extraction methods as compared with sodium monensin on the gas production kinetic, mitigation of methane, and rumen fermentation products using wheat bran or Tifton 85 hay as substrates, by the semi-automatic in vitro gas production technique. A completely randomized design was adopted, and two natural additives were tested made from mesquite pod (alkaloid extract I and alkaloid extract II) at three levels (3.9, 7.9, and 12 μg), sodium monensin 5 μM (positive control), and no inclusion of additives (negative control). The volume of gases produced by the degradation of the fibrous fraction of wheat bran was influenced by the concentration of the extract I added to the medium, and the amounts of 7.9 and 12 μg were equal to monensin at the lowest value. The degradation rate of the fibrous carbohydrates with additive extract I at 12 μg was lower in relation to monensin. When Tifton 85 hay was utilized, alkaloid extract I provided a shorter colonization time as compared with monensin at the added amounts of 7.9 and 12 μg and higher production of gases from the fibrous fraction but without interfering with the total volume of gases produced during 96 h of fermentation of carbohydrates. In the periods of 12 and 24 h of incubation, utilizing alkaloid extract I, the mean values of methane production with wheat bran and Tifton 85 hay were lower than monensin (p < 0.05) when the respective amounts of 7.9 and 12 μg were added. Alkaloid extract I has similar potential to sodium in reducing production of total gases, methane, and the acetate/propionate ratio.