From a health prospective, it is critical to provide a comprehensive model which integrates all the parameters involved in virus transmission and its consequences on human body. In order to estimate the health risks, for workers and residents, associated with an exposure airborne viruses emitted from a wastewater treatment (WWTP), the concentration levels of viruses in emitted bioaerosols over a twelve-month period were measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). A combined Gaussian plum dispersion model and quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) with Monte-Carlo simulation served as suitable explanatory tools to estimate the risk of acquiring gastrointestinal illness (GI) due to exposure to air containing Rotavirus (RoV) and Norovirus (NoV) bioaerosols. Additionally, DALY metric was applied to quantify the disability and mortality for workers and residents. RoV and NoV were detected above aeration tank with annual mean concentration 27 and 3099 (Viruses/m³.h), respectively. The medium calculated DALY indicator based on viral loads in contaminant source (RoV:5.76 × 10⁻² and NoV:1.23 × 10⁻¹) and estimated in different distances away (300–1000 m) (RoV:2.87 × 10⁻²- 2.75 × 10⁻² and NoV:1.14 × 10⁻¹-1.13 × 10⁻¹) were markedly higher than the threshold values recommended by US EPA (10⁻⁴ DALY pppy) and WHO (10⁻⁶ DALY pppy). The sensitivity analysis highlighted dose exposure and disease burden per case (DBPC) as two most influential factors for both workers and residents following exposure to two pathogens of concern. Due to high resistance and high concentration in the environment, the presence of RoV and NoV can intensify the consequences of diarrhea especially for children under five years of age; A comprehensible and transparent presentation of DALYs and QMRA can help decision makers and responsibilities to justify the priorities of exposure to wastewater in comparison with other risks of daily life.

Noroviruses are the most common cause of gastroenteritis outbreaks in humans and bivalve shellfish consumption is a recognized route of infection. Our aim was to detect and characterize norovirus in bivalves from a coastal city of Brazil. Nucleic acid was extracted from the bivalve's digestive tissue concentrates using magnetic beads. From March 2018 to June 2019, 77 samples were screened using quantitative RT-PCR. Noroviruses were detected in 41.5%, with the GII being the most prevalent (37.7%). The highest viral load was 3.5 × 106 and 2.5 × 105 GC/g in oysters and mussels, respectively. PMA-treatment demonstrated that a large fraction of the detected norovirus corresponded to non-infectious particles. Genetic characterization showed the circulation of the GII.2[P16] and GII.4[P4] genotypes. Norovirus detection in bivalves reflects the anthropogenic impact on marine environment and serves as an early warning for the food-borne disease outbreaks resulting from the consumption of contaminated molluscs.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has led people to implement preventive measures, including surface and hand disinfection with a disinfectant to avoid viral transmission. The detection of coronaviruses on surfaces implies not always a high danger of infection. Different coronaviruses and SARS-CoV-2 can be detected under experimental conditions on surfaces for many days. However, there are no studies concerning the virus load and the risk for an infection. The aim of our study was to find out if we could detect SARS-CoV-2 with a virus load greater than 10⁶ copies/mL in public areas under real-life conditions. A total of 1200 swabs were performed on different environmental surfaces in public areas: handholds, press buttons in buses, tramways, tubes, elevators, shops, doorknobs in public buildings, public restrooms, touchscreens in shops and public transportation services, supermarket trolleys, banknotes and coins and immediately tested. We used Rapid Covid-19 Antigen Test (Clinitest®) by Siemens Healthineers (Healgen Scientific Limited Liability Company, Houston, USA, respectively, Shanghai International Holding Corp. GmbH (Europe), Hamburg, Germany). During our study, we were not able to detect SARS-CoV-2 with a virus load greater than 10⁶ copies/ml although we pooled the swabs. According to the negative antigen tests and with a theoretically probability calculation of 1/24.000, there seems no relevant risk of infection with SARS-CoV-2 in public areas. For people with underlying diseases or immunosuppression, the risk of transmission respectively infectivity cannot be excluded with this study.

The outbreak of novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has affected the entire world with its infectious spread and mortality rate. The severe cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are characterized by hypoxia and acute respiratory distress syndrome. In the absence of any specific treatment, just the preventive and supportive care options are available. Therefore, much focus is given to assess the available therapeutic options not only to avoid acute respiratory failure and hypoxia but also to reduce the viral load to control the severity of the disease. The antimalarial drug hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) is among the much-discussed drugs for the treatment and management of COVID-19 patients. This article reviews the therapeutic potential of HCQ in the treatment of COVID-19 based on the available in vitro and clinical evidence, current status of registered HCQ-based clinical trials investigating therapeutic options for COVID-19, and environmental implications of HCQ.

The greatest challenge the world is facing today is to win the battle against COVID-19 pandemic as soon as possible. Until a vaccine is available, personal protection, social distancing, and disinfection are the main tools against SARS-CoV-2. Although it is quite infectious, the SARS-CoV-2 virus itself is an enveloped virus that is relatively fragile because its protective fatty layer is sensitive to heat, ultraviolet radiation, and certain chemicals. However, heat and liquid treatments can damage some materials, and ultraviolet light is not efficient in shaded areas, so other disinfection alternatives are required to allow safe re-utilization of materials and spaces. As of this writing, evidences are still accumulating for the use of ozone gas as a disinfectant for sanitary materials and ambient disinfection in indoor areas. This paper reviews the most relevant results of virus disinfection by the application of gaseous ozone. The review covers disinfection treatments of both air and surfaces carried out in different volumes, which varies from small boxes and controlled chambers to larger rooms, as a base to develop future ozone protocols against COVID-19. Published papers have been critically analyzed to evaluate trends in the required ozone dosages, as a function of relative humidity (RH), contact time, and viral strains. The data have been classified depending on the disinfection objective and the volume and type of the experimental set-up. Based on these data, conservative dosages and times to inactivate the SARS-CoV-2 are estimated. In small chambers, 10–20 mg ozone/m³ over 10 to 50 min can be sufficient to significantly reduce the virus load of personal protection equipment. In large rooms, 30 to 50 mg ozone/m³ would be required for treatments of 20–30 min. Maximum antiviral activity of ozone is achieved at high humidity, while the same ozone concentrations under low RH could result inefficient. At these ozone levels, safety protocols must be strictly followed. These data can be used for reducing significantly the viral load although for assuring a safe disinfection, the effective dosages under different conditions need to be confirmed with experimental data.

Enteric viruses, generally found in sewage, are recognized as the main cause of waterborne and foodborne public health outbreaks. Among leading enteric viruses, the Rotavirus A (RVA) detection in wastewater appeared to be a novel approach to monitor the emergence of these viruses in some countries where the viral gastroenteritis surveillance is almost absent such as in Tunisia. The RVA detection and quantification in an industrial sewage purification plant of Charguia I (Tunis, Tunisia) were achieved to evaluate the performance of activated sludge procedures coupled to a macrofiltration monolamp ultraviolet irradiation type C (UV-C₂₅₄) disinfection reactor. This UV-C₂₅₄ system was preceded by a fiberglass cartridge filter system with an average porosity of 45 μm to clarify the water and thus increase its UV transmittance. A total of 140 composite sewage samples was collected from this line of treatment and analyzed for RVA detection. The detection and the viral load quantification of RVA were performed using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The virological results showed in general that RVA were detected at high frequency of 98% (137/140). In fact, the RVA detection rates at the exit of the two studied wastewater treatment were about 100% at the exit of the activated sludge procedure. It means that all wastewater sampled at this last step of treatment was positive for RVA detection. On the other hand, 92.5% of the wastewater samples taken at the exit of the monolamp UV-C₂₅₄ reactor were positive for the RVA. However, the RVA quantification results expressed as viral load showed a significant reduction in the means of RVA viral loads at the exit of the biological activated sludge procedure and the tertiary UV-C₂₅₄ treatment, showing in general an improved treated wastewater virological quality. Therefore, the RVA load removal rates recorded at the two successive stages of treatment, the activated sludge and the UV-C₂₅₄ treatment, were around 85% and 73%, respectively, as compared to the one with 100% registered for the raw wastewater. In addition, good physical-chemical and bacteriological qualities of the treated sewage were found at the exit of the two considered wastewater treatment procedures. The present investigation represents the first Tunisian environmental report showing the good effectiveness and performance of the biological and the tertiary treatments for RVA removal. Therefore, an improved and an optimized tertiary disinfection treatment was needed since it could be a good means for getting better viral water quality and for minimizing the transmission and dissemination of human infectious viral diseases.

Fresh produce irrigated with surface water that may contain pathogens such as enteric viruses can lead to outbreaks of foodborne viral illnesses. In the current study, we performed real-time PCR (qPCR) to monitor the presence of enteric viruses such as human adenoviruses (HAdVs), hepatitis A virus (HAV), rotavirus group A (RVA), and norovirus GI (NoV GI) in surface water and fresh produce that were grown using this surface water in Egypt. Samples were collected on four occasions from different sites located in the Delta and in Greater Cairo, Egypt. Of the 32 water samples and 128 fresh produce samples, 27/32 (84.3%) and 99/128 (77.3%), respectively, were positive for at least one virus. HAdV (30/32) with a mean viral load = 1.5 × 10⁷ genome copies/L (GC/L) was the most commonly detected virus in water, followed by RVA (16/32, with a mean viral load = 2.7 × 10⁵ GC/L), HAV (11/32, with a mean viral load = 1.2 × 10⁴ GC /L), and NoV GI (10/32, with a mean viral load = 3.5 × 10³ GC/L). Additionally, HAdV (71/128, with a mean viral load = 9.8 × 10⁵ GC/g) was also the most commonly detected virus in the fresh produce, followed by NoV GI (43/128, with a mean viral load = 4.5 × 10³ GC/g), HAV (33/128, with a mean viral load = 6.4 × 10³ GC/g), and RVA (25/128, with a mean viral load = 1.5 × 10⁴ GC/g). Our results indicate that fresh produce may be contaminated with a wide range of enteric viruses, and these viruses may originate from virus-contaminated irrigation water. Moreover, this fresh produce may serve as a potential vector for the transmission of viral foodborne illnesses. These findings are important for future risk assessment analysis related to water/foodborne viruses. Graphical abstract . Please provide caption for Graphical AbstractGraphical abstract showing sample collection and processing

With increasing environment pollution and bacterial transmitted viral diseases globally, the development of new, effective, and low-cost materials/strategies is the current major challenge. To combat with this alarming problem, three new multi-functional and thermally stable SnO₂NPs@ZIF-8 composites (NC1, NC2, and NC3) were synthesized by a facile and sustainable approach involving in situ encapsulation of SnO₂NPs (150, 300, and 500 μL suspension in methanol) within zeolitic imidazole framework at room temperature. The morphology and crystallinity of ZIF-8 remained unchanged upon the proper encapsulation of SnO₂NPs in its matrix. Herein, for the first time, the antiviral potential of ZIF-8 and SnO₂NPs@ZIF-8 against chikungunya virus is reported by investigating their cytotoxicity against Vero cell line (employing MTT ((3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide)) assay). The maximum non-toxic doses were 0.04 mg mL⁻¹ for ZIF-8 and SnO₂NPs@ZIF-8 and 0.1 mg mL⁻¹ for SnO₂NPs. Further, NC1 exhibited (based on plaque assay) reduction in viral load/titers up to > 80% during post-treatment and > 50% during pre-treatment, greater than that of ZIF-8 and SnO₂NPs due to synergistic effect. Further, NC1 (10 mg) exhibited enhanced photocatalytic efficiency (≥ 96%) for degradation of methylene blue (0.5 × 10⁻⁵ M) at pH ˃ 7.0. The probable mechanism for their antiviral activity and photocatalytic activity has been discussed. The multi-functional composites can effectively be used to reduce water pollution and as remedy for mosquito/bacterial transmitted viral diseases.

Occult hepatitis C virus infection (OCI) is a newly defined type of infection by the chronic hepatitis virus (HCV) distinguished by the existence of HCV RNA in liver tissue and/or peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in patients whose plasma are devoid of both positive serology and RNA. Patients on maintenance hemodialysis evince a higher HCV prevalence than the general population due to high nosocomial transmission by the dialysis units. We investigated the prevalence of occult HCV infection in patients attending our university hemodialysis centers for maintenance hemodialysis. Sixty-two CHD patients negative for serum HCV tests were enrolled in the study. PMNCs were tested by real-time PCR for the presence of HCV RNA. For the 62 patients, the average duration since starting dialysis was 32.7 months and the mean (SD) alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase were 25.74 ± 9.75 and 28.81 ± 11.32 IU/l, respectively. Out of the 62 CHD patients negative for serum anti-HCV and HCV RNA patients, only three (4.84%) were shown to have HCV RNA in their PBMCs implying the diagnosis of OCI; their viral load range was 1.24–4.15 IU/ml. All three OCI-proven patients gave no history of hepatic disease. In this study, we found that patients considered to be free of HCV can have HCV replicating in their PBMCs. This awareness points to the possibility of HCV being transmitted from apparently uninfected persons. A positive HCV RNA detection in PBMCs is dependable in determining OCI among high-risk subjects particularly when a liver biopsy is not an option. HCV transmission can occur through hemodialysis units signaling incorrect application of infection control measures in our Egyptian dialysis units. Additional studies on hemodialysis patients are necessary to realize the true magnitude of OCI among this patient group and to highlight the importance of incorporating HCV viral assays in PBMCs into the diagnostic algorithm.

Understanding the abundance and fate of human viral pathogens in wastewater is essential when assessing the public health risks associated with wastewater discharge to the environment. Typically, however, the microbiological monitoring of wastewater is undertaken on an infrequent basis and peak discharge events may be missed leading to the misrepresentation of risk levels. To evaluate diurnal patterns in wastewater viral loading, we undertook 3-day sampling campaigns with bi-hourly sample collection over three seasons at three wastewater treatment plants. Untreated influent was collected at Ganol and secondary-treated effluent was sampled at Llanrwst and Betws-y-Coed (North Wales, UK). Our results confirmed the presence of human adenovirus (AdV), norovirus genotypes I and II (NoVGI and NoVGII) in both influent and effluent samples while sapovirus GI (SaVGI) was only detected in influent water. The AdV titre was high and relatively constant in all samples, whereas the NoVGI, NoVGII and SaVGI showed high concentrations during autumn and winter and low counts during the summer. Diurnal patterns were detected in pH and turbidity for some sampling periods; however, no such changes in viral titres were observed apart from slight fluctuations in the influent samples. Our findings suggest that viral particle number in wastewater is not affected by daily chemical fluctuations. Hence, a grab sample taken at any point during the day may be sufficient to enumerate the viral load of wastewater effluent within an order of magnitude while four samples a day are recommended for testing wastewater influent samples.