Pasture research led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and national institutions during the 80's and 90's, contributed with new Brachiaria species with various characteristics and uses that were incorporated with success in livestock production systems in the lowlands of Latin America. Brachiaria brizantha, Brachiaria dictyoneura, Brachiaria humidicola and Brachiaria ruziziensis are some of the forage materials released by research institutions in the region. Despite its indisputable advantages, the Brachiaria genus presents limitations because of its low tolerance to prolonged droughts and its high susceptibility to spittlebug, a pest that causes considerable economic losses to the livestock industry. Thus, most recent research in CIAT's Brachiaria breeding program has focused on the development of a second generation of Brachiaria grasses: outstanding agronomic characteristics, establishment vigor, good sprout capacity, high biomass production and nutritional quality, good seed production, resistant to Rhizotocnia and to multiple spittlebug species. The results of this effort have conveyed to the recent release of Mulato grass, the first hybrid of the Brachiaria genus obtained by CIAT's genetic improvement program. In the waiting list of the second generation of Brachiaria grasses is hybrid #4624 (CIAT 36087), to be released in 2005, having a similar forage quality as Mulato and with all the attributes defined for the second generation of Brachiaria grasses. Moreover, several other hybrids are in advanced stages of evaluation and close to being released as commercial cultivars. The potential economic impact of the adoption of new Brachiaria hybrids on livestock production systems was evaluated using the Economic Model MODEXC. Two regions were considered in Colombia: the Northern Coast and the Eastern Plains. In Mexico, the tropical region; and in Central America, its six constituent countries. The model estimates the economic benefits attributable to the utilization of the new materials, disaggregating per country, region, ecosystem, production system and large social groups (consumers and producers). It works with two types of parameters: the technical ones that characterize the new technology and its process of dissemination, and the economic ones representing the conditions of market supply and demand of both beef and milk affected by the technical change. The benefits of the new technology (from the year 2007) were calculated for a period of 20 years and the results were expressed in terms of the net present value (NPV) and annuities. The estimates were made using alternatively an economic framework of open and closed economy. In a closed economy, without international trade, the NPV of the technological benefits was estimated at US$4,166 million, of which 54% would be generated by the marketing of beef and the rest by milk. Most of the benefits were concentrated in Mexico, US$2,831 (68%); followed by Colombia, US$960 million (23%), and Central America, US$363 million (9%). In order to have criteria on the extent of the estimated technological benefits, the value of beef and milk yield during 2003 was calculated in the reference countries. The NPV is equivalent to 44% of the value of that year, ranging between 16% in Honduras and 78% in Nicaragua. The results show the importance of the dual purpose livestock production system. In most countries, more than half of the technological benefits was generated in this system: Colombia 70%, Central America 62%, and Mexico 50%. When a country is self-sufficient and the surplus resulting from the technical improvements is marketed domestically, the benefits are transferred to consumers who are favored with the reduction in prices, making possible for them to increase consumption. In the case of a closed economy, consumers would capture 83% of total benefits. Trade liberalization implies a re-distributive process favoring producers. Export purchases increase total demand and restrain the fall of domestic prices. In an open-market economy, the share of benefits to producers would rise to 46%. Research investment is conceived as a primary mechanism to achieve two of the most basic social goals: 1) poverty reduction and improvement in equity, and 2) the promotion of economic growth. Having this premise, in order to establish to what extent this technical change contributes to the fulfillment of these goals, the acquired benefits were estimated for the most vulnerable population groups: a) The two quintiles of poor consumers, representing 40% of total population, and b) the small producers. In both schemes, open or closed economy, both groups receive more than one-fourth of the benefits from technical change, 27% and 31%, respectively. This is equivalent to a NPV ranging between US$1,137 to 1,303 millions. Because the hybrids require better soils or fertilizer inputs to maintain forage biomass productivity and quality, the study was made with conservative hypotheses about changes in productivity and the size of the area to be planted. Despite the definition of the levels of critical variables, especially those associated with the productivity and the adoption of the new Brachiaria hybrids, conservative criteria were considered in order to avoid overestimating the benefits; it is important to evaluate the sensitivity of these, against undesirable changes of those variables. For this purpose, three alternative scenarios were established: 1) The reduction of 50% of the area cultivated with new Brachiaria hybrids, 2) the reduction of 10% in the yields of the new materials, and 3) the increase of 50% in the total time of adoption. The most critical variable in the determination of the amount of benefits is yield (productivity) of the new technology, in terms of beef and milk per hectare. The elasticity of the benefits regarding the yields was estimated at 2.2 for Colombia and 1.8 for Central America and Mexico. This suggests that if the yield declines by 1%, the reduction of the social benefits is more than proportional. The social benefits are less elastic with regard to the area planted with new Brachiaria hybrids or the time of adoption. For example, in Colombia, if the area with improved materials declines by one percentage point, the benefits will diminish at approximately six tenths of one point. In all the proposed alternative scenarios, the investment in the development of these new pastures are economically attractive, despite the adverse circumstances proposed in these scenarios. The technological benefits expressed as an annuity (a fixed annual payment received for a specific number of years) shows that the investment for the development of new forage options is very low, less than US$ 20 million, compared with the annual benefits resulting from the use of these new materials.

The early adoption of the legume Arachis pintoi was studied in the State of Caqueta, located in Colombia's Amazon region [date not given]. Data came from 174 farmers randomly surveyed in 1986 and 1997 within the area of influence of Nestle, a multinational milk-processing company. In addition, 52 farmers who had already adopted Arachis were surveyed separately to study their experiences, difficulties, and prospects with the legume. Results indicated that livestock activity is undergoing dynamic intensification. Since 1986, milk production per lactation has increased by 31%, cow fertility by 5%, herd size by 18%, and the area sown to improved pastures by 165%. Current adoption rate of Arachis is about 9.2%, with an estimated 3000 ha already planted. Two-thirds of farmers who had adopted Arachis said they would double, in the next year, the average area sown (9.6 ha/farm). Adopters tended to have larger farms and to have invested twice the capital than did non-adopters. The cost of seed for both grass and legume accounted for 40-52% of total establishment costs, making seed quality decisive in uaranteeing success. To promote Arachis, more information on the plant and its management in association with grasses must be disseminated. Mechanisms should also be sought to reduce establishment costs.

Pasture research led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and national institutions during the 80's and 90's, contributed with new Brachiaria species with various characteristics and uses that were incorporated with success in livestock production systems in the lowlands of Latin America. Brachiaria brizantha, Brachiaria dictyoneura, Brachiaria humidicola and Brachiaria ruziziensis are some of the forage materials released by research institutions in the region. Despite its indisputable advantages, the Brachiaria genus presents limitations because of its low tolerance to prolonged droughts and its high susceptibility to spittlebug, a pest that causes considerable economic losses to the livestock industry. Thus, most recent research in CIAT's Brachiaria breeding program has focused on the development of a second generation of Brachiaria grasses: outstanding agronomic characteristics, establishment vigor, good sprout capacity, high biomass production and nutritional quality, good seed production, resistant to Rhizotocnia and to multiple spittlebug species. The results of this effort have conveyed to the recent release of Mulato grass, the first hybrid of the Brachiaria genus obtained by CIAT's genetic improvement program. In the waiting list of the second generation of Brachiaria grasses is hybrid #4624 (CIAT 36087), to be released in 2005, having a similar forage quality as Mulato and with all the attributes defined for the second generation of Brachiaria grasses. Moreover, several other hybrids are in advanced stages of evaluation and close to being released as commercial cultivars. The potential economic impact of the adoption of new Brachiaria hybrids on livestock production systems was evaluated using the Economic Model MODEXC. Two regions were considered in Colombia: the Northern Coast and the Eastern Plains. In Mexico, the tropical region; and in Central America, its six constituent countries. The model estimates the economic benefits attributable to the utilization of the new materials, disaggregating per country, region, ecosystem, production system and large social groups (consumers and producers). It works with two types of parameters: the technical ones that characterize the new technology and its process of dissemination, and the economic ones representing the conditions of market supply and demand of both beef and milk affected by the technical change. The benefits of the new technology (from the year 2007) were calculated for a period of 20 years and the results were expressed in terms of the net present value (NPV) and annuities. The estimates were made using alternatively an economic framework of open and closed economy. In a closed economy, without international trade, the NPV of the technological benefits was estimated at US$4,166 million, of which 54% would be generated by the marketing of beef and the rest by milk. Most of the benefits were concentrated in Mexico, US$2,831 (68%); followed by Colombia, US$960 million (23%), and Central America, US$363 million (9%). In order to have criteria on the extent of the estimated technological benefits, the value of beef and milk yield during 2003 was calculated in the reference countries. The NPV is equivalent to 44% of the value of that year, ranging between 16% in Honduras and 78% in Nicaragua. The results show the importance of the dual purpose livestock production system. In most countries, more than half of the technological benefits was generated in this system: Colombia 70%, Central America 62%, and Mexico 50%. When a country is self-sufficient and the surplus resulting from the technical improvements is marketed domestically, the benefits are transferred to consumers who are favored with the reduction in prices, making possible for them to increase consumption. In the case of a closed economy, consumers would capture 83% of total benefits. Trade liberalization implies a re-distributive process favoring producers. Export purchases increase total demand and restrain the fall of domestic prices. In an open-market economy, the share of benefits to producers would rise to 46%. Research investment is conceived as a primary mechanism to achieve two of the most basic social goals: 1) poverty reduction and improvement in equity, and 2) the promotion of economic growth. Having this premise, in order to establish to what extent this technical change contributes to the fulfillment of these goals, the acquired benefits were estimated for the most vulnerable population groups: a) The two quintiles of poor consumers, representing 40% of total population, and b) the small producers. In both schemes, open or closed economy, both groups receive more than one-fourth of the benefits from technical change, 27% and 31%, respectively. This is equivalent to a NPV ranging between US$1,137 to 1,303 millions. Because the hybrids require better soils or fertilizer inputs to maintain forage biomass productivity and quality, the study was made with conservative hypotheses about changes in productivity and the size of the area to be planted. Despite the definition of the levels of critical variables, especially those associated with the productivity and the adoption of the new Brachiaria hybrids, conservative criteria were considered in order to avoid overestimating the benefits; it is important to evaluate the sensitivity of these, against undesirable changes of those variables. For this purpose, three alternative scenarios were established: 1) The reduction of 50% of the area cultivated with new Brachiaria hybrids, 2) the reduction of 10% in the yields of the new materials, and 3) the increase of 50% in the total time of adoption. The most critical variable in the determination of the amount of benefits is yield (productivity) of the new technology, in terms of beef and milk per hectare. The elasticity of the benefits regarding the yields was estimated at 2.2 for Colombia and 1.8 for Central America and Mexico. This suggests that if the yield declines by 1%, the reduction of the social benefits is more than proportional. The social benefits are less elastic with regard to the area planted with new Brachiaria hybrids or the time of adoption. For example, in Colombia, if the area with improved materials declines by one percentage point, the benefits will diminish at approximately six tenths of one point. In all the proposed alternative scenarios, the investment in the development of these new pastures are economically attractive, despite the adverse circumstances proposed in these scenarios. The technological benefits expressed as an annuity (a fixed annual payment received for a specific number of years) shows that the investment for the development of new forage options is very low, less than US$ 20 million, compared with the annual benefits resulting from the use of these new materials.

The objective of this study was to understand the perception of agricultural producers in Colombia who currently do not own livestock about the role of cattle in alleviating poverty in their farms. Data came from direct survey interviews in 2002 with 143 farmers who did not own cattle in the five most important regions of animal production in Colombia to elicit their perception about the role of livestock as a pathway out of poverty. Selected regions were: Piedmont, Caribbean, the Coffee-growing region, the highlands of Antioquia, and the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie. Most smallholders interviewed in the Piedmont had cattle in the past (85%), followed by producers in Antioquia (60%) and least in the Coffee-growing region (39%). The most important reason for selling their cattle in all regions was due to financial crisis and needed cash (ie., from 27% of smallholders interviewed in the Caribbean and the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie to almost 50% in the Piedmont). Most smallholders surveyed used the money from the sale of animals to pay health bills of family members, to pay off debts, and/or to use the cash to survive due to crop failure from extreme weather conditions (ie., drought or frost damage). The most striking result is that 76% of farmers in Antioquia to 97% of smallholders in the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie would like to own cattle if they had the opportunity. The most important reason for owning cattle in all regions was as a mechanism for savings and building capital. The second most important reason in all regions was to obtain milk and beef for family consumption, except in Antioquia where this issue was irrelevant. Other reasons for owning cattle were to reduce and diversify risk due to crop failure and to utilize manure as fertilizer. The preferred animal category to own in all regions was by far the milking cow, ranging from 52% of smallholders in Antioquia to 96% in the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie. Results from this study show that cattle are perceived by small-holder farmers as a contribution to the improvement in the quality of life. The challenge is to develop novel mechanisms to provide smallholders with livestock, either through credit loans or thru the Fondos Ganaderos of Colombia, whose objective is to help small farmers who have production capacity but lack the resources to buy cattle.

In vitro study was carried out to measure methane (CH4) production and ruminal fermentation parameters of tropical forages either commonly used and with a potential for inclusion in Colombian livestock systems. The forages evaluated wereUrochloa hybrid cv. Cayman, Leucaena leucocephala, Leucaena diversifolia, Megathyrsus maximus cv. Mombaza, Urochloa brizantha cv. Toledo, Canavalia brasiliensis,Urochloa decumbens, Tithonia diversifolia and Dichantium aristatum. which were incubated using the in vitro gas technique for 96 h. Treatments with higher neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and crude protein (PC) contents had higher gas production, dry matter (DM) degradability and the highest CH4 production (ml/g DMd) at 24 hours. Methane at 24 hours of incubation varied between 4.69 and 8.10 ml and increased by 43% on average at 48 hours. In all treatments, the highest proportion of volatile fatty acid (VFAs) corresponded to acetate, which was more than 50% of the total VFAs produced. Treatments with Urochloa hybrid cv. Cayman and their associations with Leucaena diversifolia had the lowest CH4 production values at 24 h. Similarly, treatments with Cayman grass, its associations with Leucaena and Toledo grass alone showed the highest DM degradability values. In conclusion, the inclusion of Leucaena and Tithonia diversifolia on a diet based on forage grass (Cayman or Toledo) had a positive effect on nutrient content and degradability and the group of treatments that included Cayman grass and its associations had lower CH4 production values and higher degradability than the rest of the treatments.

The objectives were to: (1) identify and quantify the effect of technological change on productivity, profitability, and competitiveness in different milk production systems and regions of the country; (2) analyze the relationship between productivity, technological change, profitability, and competitiveness; (3) analyze the evolution of milk production systems in Colombia; and (4) discuss the market concentration and its impact on the formation of milk price. Data came from a survey to 545 farms during the year 2000 in five regions: Caribbean and Piedmont in the lowlands, Coffee Growing, Antioquia, and the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie in the highlands. The survey was designed to quantify inputs and products in order to determine costs and prices at the farm level in order to calculate (a) variable costs for feed supplementation, labor, health, reproduction, fertilization, and irrigation; (b) gross income from the sale of milk and beef, and (c) to characterize farms according to productivity level and management practices. The statistical analysis of multiple correspondence and general linear models were used to explain the variability observed between productivity and profitability as a function of technological change. Independent of the production system or the region where farms were located, the increase in competitiveness was in direct relationship with herd size. Thus, as herd size increased, production costs per unit of milk and beef decreased, net incomes per cow increased, and the return to capital investment improved. However, when this increase in competitiveness was associated with increases in productivity, this trend was not observed, which suggested that highly productive farms were not necessarily competitive. The dual-purpose system was the most profitable one in the Piedmont, Caribbean, and Coffee growing regions while in Antioquia and in the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie the most profitable was the specialized dairy system. With regards to technological change, the adoption of improved pastures and the investment in pasture divisions for a more efficient rotation generated higher productivity and income in all regions and production systems, as well as increased competitiveness through a reduction in production costs per unit of milk and beef. The use of strategic feed supplementation to the basal diet of forage had mixed effects. The best economic response to this supplementation in lowland regions (i.e., Piedmont and Caribbean) was with low quantities (i.e., < 0.5 kg DM/cow/day) of feed supplements while in highland regions (i.e., Coffee Growing area, Antioquia and the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie) was with moderate quantities (i.e., between 0.5 and 2 kg DM/cow/day). The use of fertilization and irrigation increased productivity, but reduced net income and increased production costs, except in the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie. The practice of milking twice a day increased both productivity and profitability and reduced production costs, except in the Caribbeanregion. Farms that de-wormed milking cows with low frequency against internal and external parasites obtained higher incomes and lower production costs in comparison with farms that de-wormed cows with higher frequency although there were no differences in productivity. The amount of years of experience of farmers at producing milk was a key factor to increase profits, although not productivity. Farms located in sites where the commercial value of land was high (>US$6,000/ha) and near market centers had higher productivity that those with commercial value of land medium ($3,000 to $6,000/ha) and low (<$3,000/ha) but were less profitable in all regions.

The objectives were to: (1) identify and quantify the effect of technological change on productivity, profitability, and competitiveness in different milk production systems and regions of the country; (2) analyze the relationship between productivity, technological change, profitability, and competitiveness; (3) analyze the evolution of milk production systems in Colombia; and (4) discuss the market concentration and its impact on the formation of milk price. Data came from a survey to 545 farms during the year 2000 in five regions: Caribbean and Piedmont in the lowlands, Coffee Growing, Antioquia, and the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie in the highlands. The survey was designed to quantify inputs and products in order to determine costs and prices at the farm level in order to calculate (a) variable costs for feed supplementation, labor, health, reproduction, fertilization, and irrigation; (b) gross income from the sale of milk and beef, and (c) to characterize farms according to productivity level and management practices. The statistical analysis of multiple correspondence and general linear models were used to explain the variability observed between productivity and profitability as a function of technological change. Independent of the production system or the region where farms were located, the increase in competitiveness was in direct relationship with herd size. Thus, as herd size increased, production costs per unit of milk and beef decreased, net incomes per cow increased, and the return to capital investment improved. However, when this increase in competitiveness was associated with increases in productivity, this trend was not observed, which suggested that highly productive farms were not necessarily competitive. The dual-purpose system was the most profitable one in the Piedmont, Caribbean, and Coffee growing regions while in Antioquia and in the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie the most profitable was the specialized dairy system. With regards to technological change, the adoption of improved pastures and the investment in pasture divisions for a more efficient rotation generated higher productivity and income in all regions and production systems, as well as increased competitiveness through a reduction in production costs per unit of milk and beef. The use of strategic feed supplementation to the basal diet of forage had mixed effects. The best economic response to this supplementation in lowland regions (i.e., Piedmont and Caribbean) was with low quantities (i.e., < 0.5 kg DM/cow/day) of feed supplements while in highland regions (i.e., Coffee Growing area, Antioquia and the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie) was with moderate quantities (i.e., between 0.5 and 2 kg DM/cow/day). The use of fertilization and irrigation increased productivity, but reduced net income and increased production costs, except in the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie. The practice of milking twice a day increased both productivity and profitability and reduced production costs, except in the Caribbeanregion. Farms that de-wormed milking cows with low frequency against internal and external parasites obtained higher incomes and lower production costs in comparison with farms that de-wormed cows with higher frequency although there were no differences in productivity. The amount of years of experience of farmers at producing milk was a key factor to increase profits, although not productivity. Farms located in sites where the commercial value of land was high (>US$6,000/ha) and near market centers had higher productivity that those with commercial value of land medium ($3,000 to $6,000/ha) and low (<$3,000/ha) but were less profitable in all regions. Box 1: Recommendations to researchers and extensionists Identify profitable technologies. Technologies that increase productivity are not necessarily profitable, which suggest the need to determine appropriate ways to evaluate them economically. This was the case of fertilization and irrigation. It is necessary to determine the best economic response to various levels of N2 and H2O to different species of improved grasses under various soil types and conditions. The most competitive and profitable breed group in the dual-purpose system was the crossbred with low (24% European-76% Zebu genes) and medium levels of dairy genes (55% European-45% Zebu genes) but had lower productivity than the purebred group (98% European genes). In the specialized dairy system, the purebred group was slightly more profitable, productive and competitive than the crossbred group with medium level of dairy genes, but this difference was not significant. The Colombian dairy sector has become more productive and competitive, but less profitable. Comparing the evolution of dairy farms with studies 12 years ago, milk production per hectare increased by 44% in dual-purpose herds and 14% in specialized dairies. This increase in productivity reduced the milk production cost by 16% and 10% in dual-purpose and specialized dairies, respectively, due to an increase in stocking rate by 15% and 17% in dual-purpose and specialized dairies as well as to an increase in investment in infrastructure and equipment by 258% and 37% in dual-purpose and specialized dairies, respectively. However, the net income per hectare during this period decreased by 27% and 69% in dual-purpose and specialized dairies due to a reduction in the producer's price of milk and beef of 22% and 20% in dual-purpose systems, and of 41% and 27% in specialized dairies. Nevertheless, this reduction in price to producers was never translated in lower prices to consumers, but remained in the hands of supermarkets and milk processing plants which expanded and modernized with long-life technology. Development agencies must internalize the fact that policies oriented to markets will be increasingly "oriented to supermarkets". If one adds that in Colombia exists 3 or 4 supermarket chains that control the food retail market, the conclusion is that sectoral policies will need to learn how to deal with a handful of giant companies. This in a huge challenge, and demands an urgent review of ideas and strategies. Box 2: Recommendations to decision makers Regionalize research. Due to the fact that the most profitable production systems are region-specific, Colombia should have different strategies for research and technology transfer in order to exploit more efficiently the comparative advantages of each region and production system. Promote collective action. It is necessary to promote cooperatives and associations to help small producers to adapt to new patterns with higher levels of competition. Otherwise, the new rules of the game could induce a massive exodus of producers in the short term and in a relatively brief period of time. It is possible, in the short run, to adopt technologies that increase milk productivity and reduce production costs while profits are reduced as a result of falling real prices as occurred in Colombia during the 90's. However, in the long run, this situation is simply unsustainable. The proposals and challenges presented in this case study have illustrated the problems and opportunities of the dairy sector in Colombia. However, these systems could represent similar situations in other countries of Latin America. Given the phenomenon of globalization and higher degree of efficiency that these systems are being exposed to, the issues of productivity, technological change, competitiveness, and markets, are critical and of enormous relevance for the performance and survival of the livestock sector in the next decades. Box 3: Recommendations to producers Without research there is no future. Efficiency goes hand in hand with technology and this depends on research and technology transfer. However, public funds allocated to agricultural research are being reduced. The challenge consists that producers in Colombia take greater control of livestock research by building alliances with local, regional and international organizations leaders in forage and livestock research. For this it is necessary that producers define and fund their own research agenda. Production-to-consumption participation. In the coming years, producers cannot limit themselves to participate only in the primary phase of production, but to expand their scope of action to other phases of the market chain to have a higher participation in the formation of milk prices and to capture a greater piece of the final price.

The early adoption of the legume Arachis pintoi was studied in the State of Caquetá, located in Colombia’s Amazon region. Data came from 174 farmers randomly surveyed within the area of influence of Nestlé, a multinational milk-processing company. In addition, 52 farmers who had already adopted Arachis were surveyed separately to study their experiences, difficulties, and prospects with the legume. Results indicated that livestock activity is undergoing dynamic intensification. Since 1986, milk production per lactation has increased by 31%, cow fertility by 5%, herd size by 18%, and the area sown to improved pastures by 165%. Current adoption rate of Arachis is about 9.2%, with an estimated 3000 ha already planted. Two-thirds of farmers who had adopted Arachis said they would double, in the next year, the average area sown (9.6 ha/farm). Adopters tended to have larger farms and to have invested twice the capital than did non-adopters. The cost of seed for both grass and legume accounted for 40-52% of total establishment costs, making seed quality decisive in guaranteeing success. To promote Arachis, more information on the plant and its management in association with grasses must be disseminated. Mechanisms should also be sought to reduce establishment costs.

Destaca que el desarrollo agroindustrial constituye la unica salida para la modernizacion agricola, ya que la puesta en marcha de agroindustrias arrastra e incorpora la tecnologia al campo y la hace rentable. Es por esta razon, que los elementos de desarrollo agroindustrial e instrumentos incentivadores deben ser coherentes y permitir integrar las partes que constituyen las empresas agroindustriales. Presenta el marco conceptual de la agroindustria, indicando que se fundamenta en tres elementos integrados y vinculados entre si: produccion primaria, industrializacion y la comercializacion, todo ello en funcion de los mercados. Analiza el rol de la agroindustria como sistema para el diseno de politicas, las formas asociativas de produccion (FAS) y la agroindustria, senalando la razon del por que, entre las empresas privadas, las FAS (cooperativas, asociaciones, etc.) son las que han tenido mayor dificultad para establecer empresas agroindustriales. Finalmente, explica la estrategia que permita la instalacion y desarrollo de empresas agroindustriales en una region o en un pais, para lo cual es necesario considerar el marco institucional, tanto a nivel estatal como privado. Describe este enfoque agroindustrial intersectorial e interinstitucional

Agrifood systems are facing significant challenges, science and innovation are key to shift the trajectory towards ensuring sustainability and resilience. Thus, scaling assumes a critical role in agricultural research for development (AR4D). Scaling consists of a continuous process in which innovations are tailored, used, and embedded into societal dynamics adapted to various contexts, aiming to create widespread positive impacts. This systematic literature review explores scaling within the context of AR4D, with a particular focus on the role of social capital. Using bibliometric and factor analysis methods, we identified the intellectual structure in the field of scaling, revealing the knowledge domains and disciplines that have determined their emergence and growth as a scientific discipline. Then, we analyzed the role of social capital in the scaling literature. Our results showed that the field of scaling is composed by four distinct literature clusters: the innovation and adoption of agricultural technology, the economics of technology adoption, sustainability in agricultural innovations, and the emergence of scaling as a research field. Disciplines such as sustainable agriculture, systemic thinking, technological transitions, and technology adoption have contributed to the development of the field. The results indicate that the explicit consideration of social capital in the scaling literature within AR4D is limited despite the importance of relationships, trust, and reciprocity values in the process of scaling. This study highlights the continuous growth and multidisciplinary nature of scaling as a research field in AR4D, reflecting its complexity. International agricultural research centers and universities from developed countries have significantly advanced this field, also underlying the importance of locally rooted, and participatory research. Future research on the creation, development, and strengthening of social capital in scaling processes can contribute foster intentional and responsible scaling of AR4D innovations.