This paper investigates the factors associated with private sector smallholder livestock and the associated income of the poor in the Indian States of Andhra Pradesh. The data used are drawn from the Livelihood Options Study led by the Overseas Development Institute, London, specifically the Census Survey 2001/2 and Panel Survey of early 2005. Poorer households depend disproportionally on livestock. Important changes were noted; the average size of any single species declined considerably in the five year period beginning from 1996/7, the number of farms keeping the species rose in the 1996/7 to 2001/2 period but dropped in the recent 2001/2 to 2003/4 period. The poorer households kept fewer small ruminants and poultry in the latter period but richer households kept more. This might suggest that the technology is shifting towards what the better off can afford like the intensive poultry keeping, and that they have better access to certain resources such as crop residues. On the other hand, policies such as the ban on grazing by goats will also have affected the poor more since they rely on open-grazing methods. Farmers identified shock/stress variables and natural environment as important for the decrease in livestock population. Livestock act as a very real means of smoothing income by allowing debts to be repaid, farm inputs and medical treatment to be purchased, and dowry to be paid. More than 22% of the farmers mentioned disease problems as a cause of the decline in livestock population. This problem needs to be addressed, possibly through public-private partnership arrangements as are being tried in other countries.

Livestock production plays a key role in tropical Latin America in a changing economic environment. This study focuses on documenting the transformations of extensive production systems by using superior forage germplasm supplied by regional research systems. The adoption of improved Brachiaria grasses was evaluated from 1990 to 2003 to estimate its impact in terms of animal productivity and income in Central America and Mexico. Information on seed sales in the local market made it possible to estimate the areas planted and the value of additional milk and beef production attributable to adoption. Mexico presents the highest volume of marketed seed and of area established with improved pastures. Among Central America countries, Costa Rica was outstanding in terms of the high volume of seed sold and the area planted, followed by Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. The annual growth rate of seed sales was very high during the study period, reaching 32% in Mexico, 62% in Honduras, 45% in Nicaragua, 39% in Costa Rica, and 54% in Panama. The area planted with Brachiaria species during this period totaled 6.5% of the total surface of permanent grasses in Mexico, 12.5% in Honduras, 1.0% in Nicaragua, 18.7% in Costa Rica, and 0.1% in Panama. Excluding Nicaragua and Panama, where adoption is low, Brachiaria grasses account for 24%-55% of total annual milk production and for 5%-18% that of beef. These figures clearly demonstrate that those adopting new Brachiaria cultivars are farmers mainly oriented toward milk production and, to a lesser extent, beef. In monetary terms, the value of additional production attributable to the adoption of Brachiaria grasses in the selected study countries was estimated at US$1084 million per year, 78% corresponding to milk and 22% to beef. Due to the magnitude of the livestock sector in Mexico, adoption generates slightly more than 80% of production profits. Study results indicate that the investment of public funds in Central America and Mexico to support the International Network for Evaluation Tropical Pastures (RIEPT, its acronym in Spanish) paid off in terms of adoption of improved grasses and significant increases in the supply of milk and beef, fundamental items in the diet of consumers from all income levels in the region.

A linear programming model was used to analyze the effects of different herd and fodder management levels on agricultural income of small-scale mountain dairy farmers in northern Peru. Results demonstrate that fodder and herd management strongly impact farm profits. There exists considerable potential to improve this situation, as many farmers in the study region are deficient in their fodder and herd management. When moving from average to high management levels, farmers could double their farm profits. In general, high mortality rates, long calving intervals, and inefficient fodder storage practices depress farmers' incomes most. Because of feeding deficiencies, especially in the dry season, recommended extension activities primarily must emphasize fodder storage and improved pasture management, to subsequently also enhance better herd management practices.

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) timber value is high in southern Europe due to a great demand from Asia. Since the timber market is global, over a long time we can expect gradual increase in demand also in other countries, including Latvia, where climatic conditions becomes increasingly more suitable for this species due to ongoing climatic changes. In order to develop recommendation for the use of beech in our country, the aim of the study was to assess the potential financial gain from Fagus sylvatica stands in Latvia. Assortment structure, defined by topdiameter and length, as well as their prices was set based on the literature survey. Results showed higher income from older (115 years) than form younger (58 years) stands: 9108 EUR haE-1, and 7939 EUR haE-1, respectively. However, the opposite was true for the net present value (r = 3%): 1423 EUR haE-1 and 304 EUR haE-1, respectively.

Private forestry and forest owners in Estonia have become more profound research subjects in the last decade. One of the most common research topics has been the identification of private forest owners’ (PFO) values and objectives. However, much of the existing studies rely on quantitative data which usually describes more active owners and owners whose forest property is larger than the average. Thus, the aim of the present study is to identify the management objectives and motives of non-industrial private forest owners using a qualitative approach – something that has been rarely used in forest owners’ research in Estonia. Eight forest owner interviews form the dataset, which is analysed in order to identify PFO forestry objectives and forest use. The results of our qualitative content analysis show, in principle, similar generalized forest owner types of motivations. However, the qualitative approach opens up these generalized types even more. Income motive goes beyond just continuous financial returns and means in many cases a sense of security. Forest ownership is closely linked with “home” interpretations. We conclude that qualitative methods in small-scale forestry research provide new insights to forest ownership and its meanings to private forest owners.

It is important for every country that its territory develops evenly and in a balanced way. In the European Union (EU), a special focus is placed on the development of rural territories, as predominantly rural regions in the EU represent 57% of the territory and 24% of the population. In Latvia, the development of rural territories depends on economic growth in the key industries for the rural areas – agriculture and forestry, and logging that contributed to 4.3% of GDP and employed 9.5% of the labour force in 2011. Therefore, the research aim is to perform an assessment of the administrative territories of Latvia. The research analysed the municipalities of Latvia in terms of population and change in the population as well as in terms of revenue and income and change in the revenue and income. The research found that in Latvia the best economic performance was demonstrated by the municipalities with a population in the range of 8-12 thousand. In the period 2004 – 2014, the number of residents decreased by more than 20% in 49 municipalities of Latvia. Such municipalities are located far away from the capital city, and poor economic performance indicators with a prevailing primary sector were typical of the municipalities. The municipalities with higher tax revenue had larger populations, which increased in the period of analysis, and such municipalities are located in the vicinity of Riga and high economic performance indicators were characteristic of them.

Urban-rural income convergence provides an opportunity to reduce the income inequality, ensuring cohesion and increasing economic output. The results show that urban-rural income convergence is a continuous tendency in the EU; the urban-urban income gap declines – rural population received 79% of net income of population living in cities in 2017 (in 2010 it was 69%). The rural population accounts for 27.3% of the EU and any changes have notable impact on the rest of the economy. Nationally the urban-rural income convergence dramatically differs amid the EU countries. In order to model an impact of urban-rural income convergence, a comparative-static approach that involves an input-output model is applied. Two scenarios are estimated for Latvia’s economy: rural net income in Latvia is assumed to be 89% of cities net income (as in the Euro Area average) in both scenarios, in the first one the saving rate is constant; in the second rural households anticipate the additional net income as a gift (saving rate for extra net income is equal to zero). The results of the first scenario argue that households final demand expenditures increase by 4.5%, output by 2.7%. The largest increase of output is modelled in chemical products (8.9%), paper products (8.7%), electrical equipment (6.2%), pharmaceutical products (6.1%), and textile (5.8%) industries. In the second scenario, the output increase: 3%. The results certify that the increase and convergence of income in rural areas are important even in advanced economies, such as the EU countries. The national and EU policies are welcome and can give notable impact on economic growth.

The objectives of this study were to: (a) estimate milk and beef yields obtained from cows grazing pastures in different stages of degradation; (b) estimate income losses as a result of the degradation process; (c) estimate the proportion of pasture areas found in each stage of degradation within the six administrative regions of Honduras; and (d) identify different strategies and costs to recuperate degraded pastures. Data came from two surveys executed during a workshop carried out in March 2004. The subjective perceptions of 25 livestock producers and 8 extension agents of the 6 administrative regions of Honduras were obtained to estimate the losses of animal productivity within the farm, region, and country. A 4-level scoring of pasture degradation was defined - where 1 was for the best condition (i.e., non-apparent degradation) and 4 was for the worst (i.e., severe degradation). Regressions, explaining the animal productivity losses at each level of pasture degradation, were generated according to the subjective and descriptive information. Comparing the perception of degraded areas, producers considered that in Honduras the extent of pasture degradation is lower compared with extension agents. According to producers, 29% of the pasture area in the country is at Level 1 (i.e., no degradation) compared with only 19% of extension agents. Moreover, producers perceived a lower proportion of pastures in severe degradation (i.e., Level 4, 27%) in comparison with almost 31% perceived by extension agents. In the intermediate degradation levels (i.e., Levels 2 and 3), both groups were similar. The country is forgoing milk and beef production due to the process of pasture degradation. According to estimations from producers, Honduras is loosing 284,106 tonnes of fluid milk and 48,271 tonnes of beef (live weight) annually for having pasture areas in Level 4 (i.e., severe degradation), equivalent to 48% of the annual production of milk and to 37% of beef. In economic terms, these losses in milk and beef yields are worth US$63 and US$48 million annually, respectively. The perception of extension agents is even more alarming. Honduras could produce 66% more milk and 50% more beef annually if livestock producers renovated their pastures before they reached level 4, equivalent to US$94 million in less revenues from milk sales and US$66 million from less beef sales. Both groups perceive that pastures, in an early stage of degradation (i.e., Level 2), are more economical, practical and rapid to recuperate. Also, as the process of degradation advances (i.e., to Levels 3 and 4), both cost and time of recuperating such pastures increase significantly. According to producers, the recuperation of a pasture from Level 4 to Level 1 costs $140/ha and takes almost a half year (i.e., 5.6 months). Extension agents estimate this cost of recuperation 27% higher ($178/ha) with 5% more time (i.e., 5.9 months). Producers perceive that grasses spend proportionately less time in going from Level 1 to 2 (i.e., 2.9 years) and as the process of degradation continues, pastures remain longer at advanced degraded levels (i.e., 3.1 years in going from level 2 to 3, and around 4.0 years in going from level 3 to 4). Moreover, producers think that the average productive life of improved grasses is about 10 years, while extension agents think that grasses degrade faster, with an average productive life of 8.4 years, 16% less than producers. According to producers and extension agents, pastures degrade at an annual rate of 10% and 12%, respectively. With these rates, Honduras would maintain its current level of degradation between levels 2.48 and 2.65. However, the renovation of pastures at an annual rate of 10-12% does not solve the problem, but maintains it. Producers argued that the current financial situation does not allow the necessary cash flow to renovate their plots, and the option of credit is not viable since real interest rates are high (ie., 10%). After simulating this scenario, it was demonstrated that farmers are able to generate the additional income necessary to pay a credit, but only if this credit is taken with interest rates similar to those found in the international market (ie., 3%). In order to eliminate the degraded areas found in Level 4 at the country level, it is necessary a one-time investment of $57 million according to producers and $84 million according to extension agents. The benefit obtained from this investment would result in a daily increase of 156,000 liters of milk and 26,500 kilograms of beef, equivalent to $22 millions/yr. Therefore, there are significant economic and productive incentives for the private and public sectors to develop and execute a plan of action to recuperate pasturelands in advanced stages of degradation.

The results of synthesis and analysis regarding the structural diversity of farms, their differences, divergence and development in Jelgava district and Zemgale agricultural region are expanded in the article. Commercial farms and semi-subsistence farms are particularly studied on the basis of farm accountancy data.

The necessity of the research is to determine by the fact in Latvia there is a strong growth in bank credit to the private sector like in several transition countries in Central and Eastern Europe. Its implications for macroeconomic development and financial stability can be ambiguous. The aim of the research is to find possible scenarios for positive credit (to private sector) growth implications for macroeconomic development and financial stability in Latvia. Attainment of the objective comprises analysis of available statistical data about Latvia, identification of factors affecting bank credit growth following up some recent researches and modelling scenarios how the credit growth could facilitate further economic development in Latvia. This paper presents only recent trends in bank credit to the private sector in Latvia and evaluates some of the factors affecting these trends. It does not provide updated practical models and scenarios because the research has been started only recently.