Since the reform and opening-up in 1978, China’s income distribution gap has widened. The Gini coefficient of national residents’ income rose from 0.31 in 1981 to a historic high of 0.49 in 2008 and has continued to hover at a high of 0.46 in the recent years (Molero-Simarro, 2017; Li and Zhu, 2018; Luo et al., 2021). Narrowing the income gap between urban and rural residents is the key to reducing China’s Gini coefficient. The ratio of per capita income between urban and rural residents exhibited an overall growth trend before 2009, despite the increase in disposable income per capita of rural residents from 134 yuan in 1978 to 18,931 yuan in 2021. In 2007, the urban–rural income ratio exceeded 3:1 for the first time and contributed over 50% to the Gini coefficient of the national income distribution (Li and Wan, 2013). Since 2009, the urban–rural income gap has decreased; however, the decline has nearly halted post 2014. In 2021, the urban–rural income ratio was still as high as 2.5:1, almost equal to that in 1978 and larger than that in developed countries, which have a level of approximately 1:1 or lower. | Non-PR | 3 Building Inclusive and Efficient Markets, Trade Systems, and Food Industry; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; DCA; IFPRI4 | DSGD

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020 has caused a global public health crisis. It has also severely damaged the world’s agrifood systems. Before the pandemic, agrifood systems were already vulnerable to many threats, including climate change, frequent extreme weather events, degradation of natural resources, economic slowdown, and regional conflicts (Fan, Wei, and Zhang 2020; Chen et al. 2020). The number of undernourished people worldwide had been increasing for five consecutive years to 690 million in 2019. More than 135 million people in 55 countries and territories were facing acute hunger, 144 million children younger than five were stunted, and 47 million children were wasted (FSIN 2020; FAO et al. 2020). The pandemic has increased poverty for the first time in 22 years—about 100 million more people have fallen into extreme poverty (FAO 2021b). Moreover, an additional 130 million people are threatened by acute severe food insecurity during the pandemic (WFP 2020a). A recent study has shown that the total number of children affected by stunting could increase by 2.8 million because of the pandemic (World Bank 2021). At the same time, the number of children experiencing wasting could increase by 6.7 million (UNICEF 2020; WFP 2020b). The livelihoods of vulnerable groups such as smallholder farmers, women, and migrant workers are threatened as they face losing jobs and incomes (FAO 2021b). Without effective measures, 840 million people in the world could face undernourishment and suffer from hunger by 2030, far from the “zero hunger” of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (IFPRI 2021b). As vaccines are gradually deployed globally, the pandemic is expected to be under control to some extent by the end of 2021. But we should not simply recover from the crisis; it is time to rethink how to build back better to achieve green, low-carbon, healthier, inclusive, and more resilient food systems. | Non-PR | IFPRI4; 3 Building Inclusive and Efficient Markets, Trade Systems, and Food Industry; DCA | DSGD

Globally crop pathogens and pests cause significant yield and quality losses in agriculture production systems. Foliar fungal diseases of small grain cereals are economically among the most important diseases worldwide and in the Baltics. Finding an effective, reliable, and easily accessible method for plant disease diagnosis still presents a challenge. Currently used methods include visual examination of the affected plant, morphological characterization of isolated pathogens and different molecular, and serological methods. All of these methods have important limitations, especially for large-area applications. Hyperspectral imaging is a promising technique to assess fungal diseases of plants, as it is a non-invasive, indirect detection method, where the plant’s responses to the biotic stress are identified as an indicator of the disease. Hyperspectral measurements can reveal a relationship between the spectral reflectance properties of plants and their structural characteristics, pigment concentrations, water level, etc., which are considerably influenced by biotic plant stress. Despite the high accuracy of the information obtained from hyperspectral detectors, the interpretation is still problematic, as it is influenced by various circumstances: noise level, lighting conditions, abiotic stress level, a complex interaction of the genotype and the environment, etc. The application of hyperspectral imaging in everyday farming practice will potentially allow farmers to obtain timely and precise information about the development of diseases and affected areas. This review provides an introduction into issues of hyperspectral imaging and data analysis and explores the published reports of worldwide research on the use of hyperspectral analysis in the detection of foliar fungal diseases of small-grain cereals.

Semi-natural grasslands (SNG) are essential in the context of farmland biodiversity. The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), on the other hand, is an important tool for the continuation of the management of semi-natural grasslands. Explicit knowledge on the pattern of grassland area changes is important to foster a more effective use of CAP for grassland biodiversity conservation. Our aim was to determine the habitat-specific changes in the distribution of Latvian SNG across different management regimes. Based on state-owned geospatial data of SNG distribution in 2014 and 2022, we assessed changes in semi-natural grassland areas over nearly ten years by analysing grassland management and spatial distribution including areas inside and outside the Natura 2000 network. The spatial distribution of SNG remained similar in both periods. Eastern Latvia retained the highest share of SNG while the central part showed the most pronounced increase in new localities of SNG due to extensive habitat mapping carried out in recent years. Abandonment appeared as a more important threat to SNG in the Natura 2000 network and more profoundly to unproductive habitat types while transformation into arable land and grassland intensification was a considerable threat to SNG outside the network and to more productive habitat types. We suggest that agri-environment schemes should address the different needs of SNG in the Natura 2000 network and outside it.

The use of the smoke released during the wood burning process to prepare food products is a centuries-long tradition, practically all over the world. However, during the combustion process, a group of compounds called polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are formed in the flue gases, which are carcinogenic and condense during the smoking process and diffuse into the smoked food product. Therefore, permissible PAH norms have been set for food producers, which significantly complicate the use of wood. In the study, using a gas analyser, we measured the flue gases released during the burning of specially made, apple and grey alder wood pellets, with and without enrichment of the supplied air with ozone. The use of ozone does not ensure a higher burning temperature of pellets, but it stabilizes it – temperature fluctuations are significantly wider using non-ozonised air (697 to 817 and 611 to 817 ℃, respectively). The content of CO2, CO, as well as CH4 and N2O increases significantly in apple wood flue gases using ozonised air, while CH4 increases and N2O decreases in grey alder smoke. Which generally indicates specific reactions with ozone during combustion. Comparing the flue gases released during the burning of apple and grey alder wood pellets, grey alder smoke contains significantly more N2O and CO2 than apple wood pellet flue gases. On the other hand, using ozonised air in the combustion process increases N2O significantly in the flue gas of apple tree pellets compared to white alder.

Diabetes is a metabolic disease whose prevalence in the world is increasing every year. To improve the life quality of diabetes patients and achieve better treatment results, adjusted food products with lower carbohydrate quantities are necessary. Primarily fructose is used in products for diabetes patients, but fructose increases obesity risk. The aim of the study is to evaluate available scientific articles on potential natural sweeteners for the substitution of fructose in food products for people with diabetes. Natural sweeteners could be a good alternative to fructose, they decrease product glycaemic index and positively influence the health of diabetes patients. Stevia is a plant used in food production for obtaining sweet taste. Glycosides extracted from stevia are food additives, i.e. sweeteners. Stevia decreases sugar levels and improves insulin secretion, it has antibacterial and antioxidative features. The use of stevia in food production causes a bitter aftertaste of products. To disguise the bitter aftertaste, other natural sweeteners are added to stevia. Thaumatin is a sweet protein used in food production. To improve product taste, polyols and other natural sweeteners are added. Polyols are a good alternative for fructose substitution because they slightly influence sugar levels in the blood and they have high chemical thermal stability. Products containing different combinations of several natural sweeteners possess the best sensory features. The research results show that stevioside, rebaudioside, thaumatin, and polyols are good alternatives for fructose substitution in products. To clarify how sweeteners, influence food product features additional researches are necessary.

Today the demand for plant-based protein is growing rapidly due to increased awareness of animal protein growing costs and limited supply and has been highly related to biodiversity loss, climate change, and freshwater depletion. Legumes are in demand for their high content of protein, minerals, vitamins, and carbohydrates, also including dietary fibre. Legumes are rich not only in macronutrients and micronutrients but also contain anti-nutritional factors. One of the most important anti-nutritive properties of legumes is their high trypsin activity. The length of time required for the preparation of legumes has limited their frequency of use compared to recommended intake levels. By heat treatment, an anti-nutritional component in legumes can be mostly separated. The possibility of using extrusion cooking, microwave dryer, roasting equipment, etc., is widely studied. Roasting is one of the widespread methods for treatment of legumes that significantly enhances the texture, flavour, colour, and product appearance. The latest studies in the legume treatments report valuable results after the combined treatments, wet roasting, which includes: dehulling, soaking, and roasting. Heat treatment can be a potential way to improve legumes use in food production: reducing the time required for treatment, preparation and improving nutritional value. l

Meat products play an important role in the human diet. They are one of the main sources of proteins, trace elements, structural components, as well as vitamins that stimulate human growth and physical activity. Raw meat refers to perishable food. There are many methods of preserving the quality and shelf-life of meat products, however, in recent years, freeze-drying is becoming more and more popular, and it combines two technological steps — freezing and vacuum drying. During the process, the product undergoes dehydration by removing water to a humidity level of 2–5%. The principle of the process involves transforming the product from a frozen phase to a gaseous phase, bypassing the liquid phase. The purpose of the article is to study the possibility and relevance of the freeze-drying process in the meat industry and to examine its advantages and disadvantages, as well as the probability of growth. During this research it was revealed that in the use of freeze-drying in the meat industry for certain purposes, it is still necessary to study and adjust in order to introduce it into a particular production. However, with regard to large enterprises where various production problems often arise this technology would not only help solve these problems, but also increase the range of innovative products and expand sales markets.

Ensuring the spatial development of regional agricultural systems in Ukraine during martial law requires a comprehensive study and implementation of urgent effective tools and mechanisms. The hostilities had a negative impact on agriculture, disrupting the regional structure of agricultural production and consumption, destroying agricultural land, assets, enterprises in certain regions of Ukraine, and reducing the volume of agricultural exports through traditional logistics channels. The aim of the study is use territorial marketing to ensure the development of regional agricultural systems in Ukraine. It is based on the analysis of regional structure of agricultural systems in Ukraine, clustering of regional agricultural systems in terms of relative security of sustainable agriculture, and mechanisms of land use development. The regional structure of agricultural systems in Ukraine is analysed and the territories where the ecosystem is destroyed and unsuitable for agriculture, which are temporarily occupied are identified. The dynamics of planted area of agricultural crops under the harvest were assessed, clusters of regional agricultural systems of Ukraine during martial law were identified. Based on research results, the use of territorial marketing is proposed, a mechanism for sustainable agriculture and strategic land use planning is developed. Prospects intend to ensure spatial development of regional agricultural systems in Ukraine during martial law by relocating agricultural enterprises to relatively safe regions, creating of integrated entrepreneurial agricultural structures, developing of public-private partnerships, attracting investments and introducing innovations, digitalization in agriculture, developing exports within the framework of cross-border cooperation, increasing employment in agriculture due to internal migration processes, etc.

Social enterprises, as an interdisciplinary form of business, often face problems that traditional enterprises and civil society organizations have already overcome: lack of legal framework, complex business models, business identity problems, lack of public awareness, lack of visibility and difficulty in accessing investment markets. The name ‘social entrepreneurship’ makes it clear that it is not easy to have a business oriented towards a social goal, because ‘social’ implies that the business is directed to the goal of reducing social problems and enhancing the quality of life, which, besides being expensive, is also a complex process. The purpose of the article is to reflect the challenges faced by representatives of social entrepreneurship in Latvia: before April 1, 2018, when this type of business was non-profit, and after, when the opportunity was given to establish a profit-making social enterprise. In order to achieve the goal, following tasks are set — to provide a theoretical explanation of social entrepreneurship, as well as, with the help of empirically obtained information, to reveal the challenges faced by representatives of social entrepreneurship in Latvia. According to interviewed informants, the main challenges for social entrepreneurs in Latvia are the lack of qualified employees, institutional cooperation and funding, which would allow organizations to effectively carry out their business; in addition, difficulties are caused by situations when financing is too complex or difficult to access, and social entrepreneurship lacks public support. Rather often, social entrepreneurs lack knowledge about business risks and how to plan their business in the long term.