Masters Degree. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg. | Urban farming, in its small scale comprises of various production systems and practices that can lead to poor soil conditions, water pollution and the extension of climate change impacts. Moreover, smallholder farmers are in turn challenged by climate change impacts including heavy rainfall, high temperatures, hailstorms and pests exacerbated by the lack of knowledge, institutional support, governance framework, limited financial resources and technology. As a result, farmers are vulnerable to urban farming and environmental risks that affect the farmers’ food and nutrition security. On the other hand, if done well, urban farming (UF) can benefit the urban environment through flood water mitigation, water infiltration and greening of the environment, while improving food security. The study was conducted in the communities of Sobantu, Sweetwaters and Mpophomeni, in KwaZulu-Natal. This study employed a mixedmethods research approach, which combines quantitative and qualitative analysis. The quantitative approach used a survey questionnaire to elicit responses from 78 urban and periurban smallholder farmers who were purposefully selected to participate in the study. Focus group discussions and field observations were used to collect in-depth qualitative data about the challenges urban farmers faced in urban farming. Additionally, the logit regression model was used to identify factors that influence the farmers adoption of urban farming management practices. The study revealed that the majority of the farmers were faced with environmental problems including poor soil conditions, water quality and access problems and climate change impacts, of which had an impact on crop yield and farm profit. Furthermore, results showed that 69.2% of farmers were aware of the environmental implications of urban farming. However, it was found that due to the farmers limited financial resources, farmers identified urban farming mainly as a source of income and a strategy to obtain extra food and less for the benefit of the environment. The study found that market availability (p=0.003), training on soil management (p=0.0011) and access to credit (p=0.097) were significant factors in the adoption of urban farming practices. The study further revealed that the farmers adoption of urban farming and water quality management practices were challenged by socio-economic and institutional factors such as the lack of knowledge, farmer training, access to markets, access to credit and poor extension support. An environmental management framework was provided to address the challenges that hinder the smallholder farmers adoption of urban farming and water quality management practices. | Authour's Keywords: urban farming, environmental management, food security, climate change impacts.

Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2008. | In this study, geophysical measurements (Electrical Resistivity Tomography-ERT) and remote sensing techniques were applied in the Thukela river basin at various scales to complement the classical hydrometeorological networks. Detailed process hydrological studies were carried out at the Potshini catchment in the Thukela river basin to provide an in-depth understanding of the influence of different land use management practices, notably the impact of conservation tiJlage practices, on runoff generation and soil moisture retention characteristics at field scale. The general trend that was observed in the field studies is that conservation tillage systems influenced the partitioning of rainfall, by significantly reducing surface runoff over agricultural lands under conservation tillage practices, with a reduction ranging from 46 to 67%. The field soil-water balance studies also indicated that more soil moisture was retained in plots under conservation tillage practices compared to plots under conventional tillage and hence the wider adoption of such a practice could influence the partitioning of rainfall across scales. The field based study was integrated into catchment process studies where a classical hydrometrical network was complemented with geophysical measurements (ERT) along catchment transects to determine the interaction of the surface and sub-surface water and the relative contribution of the subsurface water to catchment response. The study revealed that the shallow ground water contributes significantly, close to 75%, of the stream flows in the Potshini catchment, especially during the dry seasons, with the response of the shallow ground water being a function of both the rainfall intensity and daily total amount. The potential of integrating the catchment process studies with the larger river basin scale was explored through the evaporative term of the water balance by applying the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL), a remote sensing methodology, to estimate total evaporation (ET) from the Moderate Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite images. This was validated with ground measurements from a Large Aperture Scintilometer (LAS) installed in the Potshini catchment. Good comparison was established between the remotely sensed estimates and LAS measurements with a deviation range of between -14 to 26% on discrete days, where the deviation was defined as the departure of the remotely sensed estimates of ET from the respective LAS measurements. The results from this study compare well with results from similar studies in other countries with different climatic conditions. Subsequently, the evaporative water use of various land uses in the upper Thukela river basin was assessed using MODIS images. Commercial forestry was identified to be the land use with a consistent and relatively high evaporative water use In the study area. High evaporation rates over water bodies were observed during the wet summer season when both the natural and man made water bodies were at full capacity. Nevertheless, it is recognized that the inherent low resolution ofthe MODIS images could have impacted on the SEBAL results. Finally, a conceptual framework, drawing the strengths of classical hydrometeorological networks, geophysical measurements, isotope tracers and remote sensing is suggested with the potential of enhancing our understanding and conceptualization of hydrological determinants across scales. The relevance of the framework to water resources management is highlighted through its application to the Potshini catchment and the Thukela river basin using results and findings from this study.

Doctoral Degree. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg. | This thesis commences with a review of the development and relevance of the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus as a framework for achieving resource security. Based on academic and grey literature it includes an assessment of what the WEF nexus is, a review of its novelty (or lack thereof), and describes the challenges associated with integrating and optimising the WEF nexus. The criticism that several WEF nexus conceptualisations neglect distributional justice is considered, followed by a reflection on governance aspects associated with the approach. Four short WEF nexus case studies illustrate nexus considerations. The research subsequently assesses the status quo of opinion within the WEF nexus fraternity. The approach is not yet a decade old, and several practitioners have called for a shift in focus from ‘nexus thinking’ to ‘nexus doing.’ Various research tools to support nexus action are presented. Next, a comprehensive WEF nexus case study that includes indicators and GIS-base maps is offered. The case study is the Mpumalanga Province in South Africa, which represents a melting pot for the WEF nexus. Within this province is a strategic water area, extensive coal mining for energy generation and a considerable portion of the nation’s high potential agricultural land. This nexus assessment yields a radar chart that represents a visualisation of six water-, energy- and food-related indicators. An anthropogenic WEF nexus framework is subsequently motivated and presented. This framework has been utilised to develop the core output of this research project, namely, the development of a country-level composite indicator that has been established for 170 nations. Following an assessment of 87 globally applicable water-, energy- and food-related indicators, 21 were selected to constitute the WEF Nexus Index. This index provides a quantitative perspective of this multi-centric lens for evaluating trade-offs necessary to achieve sustainable development. To this end, it can be utilised for assessing national progress relating to integrated resource management as well as supporting decision making and policy development. The relevance and usefulness of the outcomes are demonstrated through a detailed discourse of the findings for selected regions and countries. An extended analysis is provided for the Southern African Development Community (SADC). WEF nexus assessments in the decade leading up to the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target year must be more comprehensive. Qualitative studies must be conducted in parallel with quantitative assessments. There is no one-size-fits-all method for integrated resource management utilising the WEF nexus. Instead, the approach must be tailored for each unique situation, and the WEF Nexus Index can be a catalyst and entry-point for such studies. By evaluating a subset of the SDGs, the index is complementary to the SDGs. The WEF Nexus Index is not a silver bullet that will solve all the significant development or environmental challenges facing humanity. This approach can, however, be added to the sustainability toolbox that is being utilised to engineer ‘the future we want’. | Extended Abstract on page vi-viii.

Master’s Degree. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban.

Masters Degree. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg. | South Africa’s climate has high spatial and temporal variability. Literature on historical rainfall patterns shows substantial declines in rainfall across the country, except in south-western South Africa, which displays increasing trends. Under the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5 scenarios, statistically downscaled rainfall projections show different patterns across South Africa throughout the 21st century. Literature indicates that this uncertainty will majorly impact South Africa’s surface water availability as its main input variable is rainfall; hence, all possible outcomes need to be planned for. Planning should include the energy and food production sectors as they primarily depend on the water sector. The Buffalo River catchment, situated in the northern parts of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, is a high rainfall receiving area, with a mean annual precipitation of 802 mm. Despite its abundant rainfall, the catchment has had its fair share of droughts, significantly impacting livelihoods and socio-economic activities. Recent reports indicate that the Buffalo River catchment’s surface water storage facilities are insufficient to meet the population’s demands by 2050. A detailed water resources assessment is required to confirm and quantify the possible alterations that climate change could cause to the catchment’s hydrology before any actions can be taken, especially regarding increasing the water storage capacity of the catchment. As such, this study aims to investigate and assess the impacts of climate change on the Buffalo River catchment’s surface water availability and reliability of water resources in meeting projected water demands, with a specific focus on agricultural and energy generation water demands. Furthermore, the study aims to develop integrated water resources adaptation strategies to increase water, energy and food security within the catchment. Due to its transdisciplinary nature, the Water-Energy-Food (WEF) nexus methodology was used as an analytical tool to carry out the research’s objectives. The study was based on the null hypotheses of climate change not varying surface water availability and reliability, and that the optimized CC water management strategies will not yield any improvements in merging potential gaps between water supply and demands. Study findings indicate that the Buffalo River catchment is anticipated to receive increases in precipitation magnitude and fluctuations throughout the 21st century. However, the increases in surface water availability that result from the anticipated rainfall increases are insufficient and unreliable to meet the rise in demands for water within the catchment, more so the irrigation demands. Through investigating the catchment’s already-existing proposed climate change policy interventions for water resources management, the study found that they were centred around boosting domestic water provisions whilst only meeting <3% of projected demands by the energy and agricultural sector. As such, by optimizing these policy plans using the WEF nexus’ Climate, Land-Use and Water Strategies (CLEWS) framework’s analytical tools, integrated climate change adaptation strategies were formulated, which were modelled to significantly improve the water storage capacity of the catchment, as well as water allocations and distribution among water users. The study concluded that the Buffalo River catchment’s surface water availability is expected to increase under climate change, however, current water storage capacity is not reliable to meet water demands throughout the 21st century. Lastly, the study also concluded that the catchment does possess immense potential for improved surface water availability to merge the gap between its water supplies and demands. Thus, the null hypotheses stipulated in this research are rejected. For discussions, policymaking and general research related to these improvements in water resources management in the Buffalo River catchment, the climate change adaptation strategies established in this research are recommended. Also, based on model evaluation statistics, the WEF nexus was successful in examining the interrelations among WEF resources, and is recommended for future studies to examine long-term integrated demand-supply strategies for WEF sectors.

M. Agric. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg 2014. | While South Africa may be food secure as a country, large numbers of households within the country, particularly female-headed households, are food insecure. Unequal distribution of agricultural production resources between men and women has been identified as one of the main causes of household food insecurity in developing countries. However, information on how the social, economic, cultural and institutional factors affect access to production resources across household head’s gender is limited. Therefore, this study set out to understand the disparities in women’s access to land and water resources and, how these differences impact the food security status of different households. A random sample of 159 households was selected in Msinga local municipality, KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa. Data were analysed using both descriptive statistics and econometric analysis (OLS, Tobit, binary and ordered logit models). The study results indicated that gender of the household head determines access to land, perceived water and land security, and household food security. The results indicated that female-headed households always have smaller sizes of land and their frequency of access to irrigation water is less than that of male-headed households. This implies that there is gender discrimination against women with regards to access to production resources, which leads to their worsened food insecurity. Marital status was also found to be an important determinant of households’ access to both land and water, implying that women gain or improve their access to resources through marriage. The Tobit model results indicated that land access was also influenced by factors such as the source of land and livestock head size. Water access was also determined by age of the household head, membership to farmer associations, irrigation type and extension services. Results indicate that level of education, water security and access to irrigation improved household food security. Therefore, there is need for a multifaceted approach, where some interventions will improve access to water security while others will improve land security. Improved water security improves food security via its impact on irrigation. Moreover, women should be empowered through farming education, opening formal job opportunities and access to support services such as extension, credit and farming inputs to close the gender gap.

M. Agric. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg 2013. | Agriculture plays an important role in rural livelihoods. However, poverty and food insecurity still persist in rural communities of South Africa where women are central to ensuring household food security through several livelihood activities including agriculture. Women engage in land-based livelihood such as irrigated agriculture to increase household food security and reduce reliance on cash to feed their households. However, poor access to water and insecure access to productive resources such as land threatens rural livelihoods and are a major constraint to poverty reduction in rural areas. According to IFPRI (2012)’s Women Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), access to production resources is an important domain for empowerment of women farmers. The aim of the study was to investigate dynamics under which rural women operate when accessing water to improve the land-based livelihoods that they engage in for improving livelihoods and household food security and to investigate the knowledge rural women possess or lack in empowering themselves for improved land-based livelihoods and improving household food security. Three small scale irrigation schemes from three district municipalities in Limpopo province, South Africa, were investigated using mixed methods approach, involving quantitative and qualitative approaches, was employed. Sampling of the participants in each irrigation scheme was done through purposive sampling. Structured questionnaires, administered to women farmers through face-to-face interviews, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and observations were used for data triangulation. The study revealed that women faced various challenges when accessing water which ranged from distant sources, unreliable and inadequate supply of water and poor irrigation infrastructure to insecure land rights. Women engaged in irrigated agriculture and livestock farming. They possessed adequate knowledge on soil preparation, weeding and harvesting. However, lack of knowledge on water management and conservation, pest management and markets was observed as an impediment to women empowerment. Ensuring secure access to adequate land and water to rural women and providing skills and knowledge for agriculture and production while ensuring access to markets may contribute to empowerment of rural women and improved land-based livelihoods that rural women engage in to improve household food security which leads to poverty reduction.