We analyse the threats of global environmental change, as they relate to food security. First, we review three discourses: (i) ‘sustainable intensification’, or the increase of food supplies without compromising food producing inputs, such as soils and water; (ii) the ‘nexus’ that seeks to understand links across food, energy, environment and water systems; and (iii) ‘resilience thinking’ that focuses on how to ensure the critical capacities of food, energy and water systems are maintained in the presence of uncertainties and threats. Second, we build on these discourses to present the causal, risks and options assessment for decision-making process to improve decision-making in the presence of risks. The process provides a structured, but flexible, approach that moves from problem diagnosis to better risk-based decision-making and outcomes by responding to causal risks within and across food, energy, environment and water systems.

Understanding the socio-economic value of freshwater in Christchurch has emerged as long-term development plans for the city ensues with attempts being made to better understand this natural resource and the value it adds to business operations. However, understanding the socio-economic value of this resource can be quite complex due to the issues surrounding freshwater use and management in Christchurch. Nonetheless, this research investigates the water use ratios and importance of the Christchurch freshwater supply to the food and beverage industry. Telephone interviews with the use of a questionnaire were conducted with 80 companies, purposely selected from within the food and beverage sector. The results from the data collected indicate that water is very important to food and beverage business operations and that the quality of freshwater is one of the key reasons for these businesses choosing to establish and operate in Christchurch. Moreover, the research also finds that the analysis conducted was limited to some degree as most companies failed to provide the necessary data to investigate the water use ratios for the food and beverage industry.

This study investigates how and to what extent mechanization in land preparation (MLP) can help improve irrigation water productivity (IWP) (measured as rice yield per unit volume of irrigation water). We employed an endogenous treatment regression model to estimate the 2021 China Land Economic Survey (CLES) data collected from Jiangsu province, China. The results reveal that MLP adoption increases IWP significantly; a higher IWP is determined by whether or not farmers adopt MLP rather than through which channel they access their farm machines; the effects of MLP adoption on IWP are monotonically increasing across the selected quantiles.

With well documented and nationally discussed ongoing deterioration and imminent threat to New Zealand’s waterways from global change, triggering a wholesale of freshwater reforms, this study sought to develop a technique that would quantify in high resolution the effects of anthropocene-induced climate change on the hydrology of the Rangitata River basin and the interdependent economic sectors. The conceptual hydrologic and water management model, Water Evaluation and Planning Tool (WEAP) was chosen for the study. The model was calibrated and validated across an equally split 1980-2020 timespan. A Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency of 0.70 was obtained for calibration, and 0.60 for validation. The percent bias was 3% and 2.5%, respectivey, and the root mean squared error to observed standard deviation was 0.55 and 0.61. Dynamically downscaled General Climate Model (GCM) climate change data of daily precipitation and mean temperature were used as forcings in the hindcasting and forecasting of water budget dynamics in the catchment, and assessed in interdecadal time series spanning 1972 to 2100. Future climate change simulations were based on the 5th Climate Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) warmest emissions scenario of anticipated radiative forcings of 8.5 Watts/m2 (RCP8.5), also known as the ‘business-as-usual’ pathway. Climate change datasets from an ensemble of six out of over forty GCMs from the CMIP5 experiments were used to simulate climate change signals across the Food-Energy-Water nexus in the Rangitata basin. Intercomparison among the 6 models used revealed notable level of uncertainty with the projected signals leading to a communication of that uncertainty in the form of ranges of lowest to highest, and average among the 6 variables. Relative to the baseline historical period (1972-2005), and forecasting for the last 21st century decade of 2090s, the simulations reveal that the Rangitata River Upper Reach basin will experience an increase in temperature by 155%±51% during winters that are 15%±13% wetter. Summers will be moderately warmer with an increase of 31%±9%, but projected to be dryier by -3.5%±18.5%. Rangitata River discharge at abstraction point will be 1.5% higher in general, while winter and summer seasons discharge will increaseby 27%±12% and 7.5%±8.5%, respectively. This is due to warmer winters leading to faster snowmelt, coupled with projected more precipitation. Notwithstanding the forecast increase in precipitation in winter in the plains, the hydrologic model predicts an overall 6.5% increase in irrigation demand by the farmers. In winter the demand increases by 7%±4%, while summer needs will be higher by 10%±3%. Actual irrigation would on the whole rise by 7%±4% with winter and summer having 7%±4% and 8%±2% more water being used, respectively. The corresponding supply reliability remains unchanged for the two seasons. For these scenarios it is assumed that the current Rangitata River allocation framework and local production model remains in place for the rest of the 21st century. Under the same conditions, inflows to the Highbank hydropower station located at the end of the supply or delivery canal, which for the greater part of the year outside winter only gets unwanted or residual water, are projected to drop by 7% causing a proportionate reduction in power production. However, winters will have 10%±17% increase in inflows, while summer inflows may decline by -14%±22%. The hydroenergy sector in the RDR scheme would hence be able to produce less under climate change, assuming the current river water allocation framework stands into the future. In summary, the study findings confirm and unpack the likely impacts of climate change in the catchment and demonstrate how the water resource assessment and management tool WEAP can be useful to multisectoral decision makers in an alpine basin of New Zealand.

Legume waster water has been revealed to contain sufficent nutritional value as an industry by-product. In this study, physicochemical properties and protein profile of pea, chickpea and soybean soaking and cooking water were investigated. Among the three legumes isolates with their wastewater, all of the cooking wastewater exhibited the lowest content of free amino acid. In the yellow pea free amino acid assay, the soaking method contains the highest volume of Ser (6.00mg/g), His (6.01 mg/g), Phe (7.48 mg/g), Ile (4.12mg/g) Thr (4.27 mg/g) and Met (1.68mg/g). Chickpea soaking water has the highest volume of His (12.05mg/g) Phe (16.43mg/g), Ile (9.77mg/g), Thr (10.12mg/g) and Met (11.08mg/g). Pea cooking water Met to Lys is 0.8, which gave it the most elastic properties to form the sponge cake and more nutritional value. To identificate the emulsifying properties, oil-in-water emulsions containing 50% Canola oil were prepared using the legumes wastewater (pea, chickpea and soybeans). These emulsions were then stored at 4°C, and changes in particle size were monitored throughout storage. Chickpea cooking emulsions showed the smallest droplets distribution in the original emulsions. The mean emulsion droplet diameter (nm) evaluated differed significantly(p<0.05) for all centrifugated legume wastewater-based emulsions. Different types of legumes affected emulsifier stability because of different protein content. In conclusion, soybean soaking and cooking water have the best emulsifier stability both at room temperature and the refrigerator temperature, pea cooking water was investigated to form the hardest sponge cake because of its highest protein content.

High GI carbohydrates are associated with several diseases, including diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease (CVD). The rate of starch digestion and absorption significantly impacts metabolic responses. Slowly digestible carbohydrates are advantageous for managing metabolic disorders such as diabetes and hyperlipidaemia and are found in legumes, pasta, and whole-grain cereals. Peas, a high-quality protein source, are typically consumed after soaking and cooking. Pea cooking water is the by-product of split yellow peas, often regarded as an ideal egg white substitute in bakery products due to its emulsifying properties. Pea cooking water (PCW) was recently reported to be rich in proteins, fibres and micronutrients. However, current research has not specifically investigated the nutritional aspects of pea cooking water, although significant nutrient loss is known to occur during cooking. This study investigated the potential of pea cooking water to manage glycaemic responses in carbohydrate-rich foods by examining its effects on human glycaemic levels as well as the structural and textural properties of these foods. This study examines the structural and nutritional modifications that occour to pasta when PCW or pea flour (PF) are incorporated into the formulation. The inclusion of freeze-dried PCW (PCWFD) in pasta significantly (P<0.05) reduced the optimal cooking time (OCT) and altered water absorption capacity due to its unique structural attributes. Compared to traditional wheat pasta, PCWP exhibited a lower OCT (P<0.05), reduced swelling index (P<0.05), and higher cooking loss when substituting 20% of semolina with PCWFD (P<0.05). Additionally, pasta substituted semlina with 10% and 20% PCWFD showed increased tensile strength and decreased cutting force (P<0.05), maintaining an intact microstructure and consistent particle size distribution. The incorporation of PCWFD modified protein-starch network of the pasta. The modified protein-starch networks in PCWP and PFP resulted in slower glucose release and a lower glycaemic response (P<0.05). The study explored the impact of varying cooking times and PCWFD levels, finding that longer cooking times and higher PCWFD concentrations affect cooking loss and water absorption, influencing glycaemic response. PCWP performs comparably or better than traditional pea flour pasta in in vitro glucose digestion tests. The food matrix does not disrupt the effect of PCW in reducing and slowing glucose release, as demonstrated by comparisons with rice boiled in PCW versus normal water. PCW incorporation significantly reduced postprandial glycaemic responses in human subjects (P<0.05), attributed to the high protein content and fibre effects on gastric emptying. The lower glycaemic index (GI) effect is also due to the higher protein content, lower starch content, and protein-starch interactions. Despite a fully gelatinized structure, PCWP maintain a reduced glycaemic response. These findings highlight the potential of PCW as a functional ingredient to enhance the nutritional profile of pasta, reduce glycaemic responses, and promote sustainable food processing practices. The present work addressed the potential health benefits of PCW to develop of functional food by investigating the effect on human postprandial glycaemic response. It represented a functional and innovative approach to food development while promoting environmentally sustainable practices.