The agricultural community has a challenge of increasing food production by more than 70% to meet demand from the global population increase by the mid-21st century. Sustainable food production involves the sustained availability of resources, such as water and energy, to agriculture. The key challenges to sustainable food production are population increase, increasing demands for food, climate change, and climate variability, decreasing per capita land and water resources. To discuss more details on (a) the challenges for sustainable food production and (b) mitigation options available, a special issue on “Water Management for Sustainable Food Production” was assembled. The special issue focused on issues such as irrigation using brackish water, virtual water trade, allocation of water resources, consequences of excess precipitation on crop yields, strategies to increase water productivity, rainwater harvesting, irrigation water management, deficit irrigation, and fertilization, environmental and socio-economic impacts, and irrigation water quality. Articles covered several water-related issues across the U.S., Asia, Middle-East, Africa, and Pakistan for sustainable food production. The articles in the special issue highlight the substantial impacts on agricultural production, water availability, and water quality in the face of increasing demands for food and energy.

The agricultural community has a challenge of increasing food production by more than 70% to meet demand from the global population increase by the mid-21st century. Sustainable food production involves the sustained availability of resources, such as water and energy, to agriculture. The key challenges to sustainable food production are population increase, increasing demands for food, climate change, and climate variability, decreasing per capita land and water resources. To discuss more details on (a) the challenges for sustainable food production and (b) mitigation options available, a special issue on “Water Management for Sustainable Food Production” was assembled. The special issue focused on issues such as irrigation using brackish water, virtual water trade, allocation of water resources, consequences of excess precipitation on crop yields, strategies to increase water productivity, rainwater harvesting, irrigation water management, deficit irrigation, and fertilization, environmental and socio-economic impacts, and irrigation water quality. Articles covered several water-related issues across the U.S., Asia, Middle-East, Africa, and Pakistan for sustainable food production. The articles in the special issue highlight the substantial impacts on agricultural production, water availability, and water quality in the face of increasing demands for food and energy.

Recent research studies and policies about innovative solutions to reduce water and energy consumption in food production are briefly reviewed. Options to increase water use efficiency and productivity include soil mulching, drip irrigation, deficit irrigation, and precision agriculture. As for the energy–water nexus, attention is focused on energy audits of water distribution networks; improving of system performance –– network sectoring, use of variable speed drives, critical points control, electricity tariff — and reduction of wastewater treatment’s energy use. At a larger scale, other solutions emerge: diversification and rotation of crops, cultivation of drought-resistant crops, and optimization process of the spatial distribution of cropping patterns. The rebound effect that can be associated to these options is also considered.

North China Plain suffers from the world’s most severe water scarcity and groundwater depletion due to intensive irrigation for agricultural production. It is imperative to reduce irrigation water consumption while safeguarding crop production and food security. This study conducted a quantitative analysis with deficit irrigation strategies for winter wheat using a water-driven AquaCrop model. After model calibration and validation with field experimental data, we analyzed the irrigation water demand, crop yield, and water productivity (WP) of winter wheat under various deficit irrigation scenarios. A set of optimal irrigation schedules were proposed for different climate years, which significantly mitigated irrigation water usage while sustaining high yields and WPs. The results indicated that despite the irrigation water demand of winter wheat under the future climate scenario was slightly higher than that in the historical period, their crop water sensitive periods (reviving, jointing, and flowering) remained the same. Therefore, we recommended adopting the same deficit irrigation schedules for the historical and future periods. In wet years, adopting a 50% deficit irrigation strategy only reduced crop yields by less than 5% compared with full irrigation, but it saved 1000–1100 m3 of water per hectare and contributed a WP higher than 1.88 kg/m3. While in normal and dry years, an optimal 25% deficit irrigation could sustain over 96% of the maximum yield, meanwhile it could save 650–800 m3/ha of water and achieve almost the same WP as full irrigation. These climate-smart irrigation strategies adapting to diverse climatic conditions largely mitigate agricultural water consumption while maximizing crop productivity and water use efficiency, which are essential for achieving precision irrigation and sustainable water management under a changing climate.

Selecting appropriate crops and applying deficit irrigation can help increase water productivity in water-limited regions such as the Mediterranean. The objective of this study was to develop water production functions of major cereal and legume crops under the same environmental and management conditions. Bread and durum wheat, faba bean, chickpea, and lentil were grown under full supplemental irrigation (FSI), two deficit irrigations levels of 2/3 of FSI (2/3SI) and 1/3 of FSI (1/3SI), and under rainfed conditions (no irrigation). In average, the actual evapotranspirations (ETs) under FSI were 549, 552, 365, 451 and 297mm, for bread wheat, durum wheat, faba bean, chickpea and lentil, respectively. For the same crops, they were 463, 458, 330, 393 and 277mm for the treatment 2/3SI and 357, 351, 265, 318 and 244mm for the treatment 1/3SI, respectively. In the case of the rainfed treatment, ETs for the mentioned crops were 250, 251, 227, 237 and 215mm, respectively. The experiment was conducted at the ICARDA experimental station at Tel Hadya, near Aleppo, Syria, over three growing seasons from 2007 to 2010. Results showed that, in general, the treatment with 1/3 of FSI gave the highest rate of increase in grain yield and water productivity. The mean grain yield from rainfed, 1/3SI, 2/3SI, and FSI were 1.36, 3.82, 5.18, and 5.70t/ha for bread wheat; 1.24, 3.80, 5.10, and 5.75t/ha for durum wheat; 1.57, 2.35, 2.86, and 3.54t/ha for faba bean, 1.36, 2.63, 3.36, and 3.74t/ha for chickpea, and 0.64, 1.16, 1.42, and 1.58t/ha for lentil respectively. Grain yield reductions due to the application of 2/3SI were around 10, 5, 15.6, and 10.2% of FSI on average for wheat, chickpea, faba bean, and lentils, respectively. Deficit irrigation at 2/3SI increased water productivity compared to rainfed treatments, by 200, 223, 126, 148 and 190% for bread wheat, durum wheat, faba bean, chickpea, and lentils, respectively. However, differences in total water productivity of crops grown under full irrigation compared to deficit irrigation were not significant. Irrigation water productivity ranged from 25kgha⁻¹mm⁻¹ in wheat with 1/3SI to 10kgha⁻¹mm⁻¹ for legumes under the FSI treatment. Unlike legumes, maximizing wheat grain yield caused a decline in water productivity.

Selecting appropriate crops and applying deficit irrigation can help increase water productivity in waterlimited regions such as the Mediterranean. The objective of this study was to develop water production functions of major cereal and legume crops under the same environmental and management conditions. Bread and durum wheat, faba bean, chickpea, and lentil were grown under full supplemental irrigation (FSI), two deficit irrigations levels of 2/3 of FSI (2/3SI) and 1/3 of FSI (1/3SI), and under rainfed conditions (no irrigation). In average, the actual evapotranspirations (ETs) under FSI were 549, 552, 365, 451 and 297 mm, for bread wheat, durum wheat, faba bean, chickpea and lentil, respectively. For the same crops, they were 463, 458, 330, 393 and 277 mm for the treatment 2/3SI and 357, 351, 265, 318 and 244 mm for the treatment 1/3SI, respectively. In the case of the rainfed treatment, ETs for the mentioned crops were 250, 251, 227, 237 and 215 mm, respectively. The experiment was conducted at the ICARDA experimental station at Tel Hadya, near Aleppo, Syria, over three growing seasons from 2007 to 2010. Results showed that, in general, the treatment with 1/3 of FSI gave the highest rate of increase in grain yield and water productivity. The mean grain yield from rainfed, 1/3SI, 2/3SI, and FSI were 1.36, 3.82, 5.18, and 5.70 t/ha for bread wheat; 1.24, 3.80, 5.10, and 5.75 t/ha for durum wheat; 1.57, 2.35, 2.86, and 3.54 t/ha for faba bean, 1.36, 2.63, 3.36, and 3.74 t/ha for chickpea, and 0.64, 1.16, 1.42, and 1.58 t/ha for lentil respectively. Grain yield reductions due to the application of 2/3SI were around 10, 5, 15.6, and 10.2% of FSI on average for wheat, chickpea, faba bean, and lentils, respectively. Deficit irrigation at 2/3SI increased water productivity compared to rainfed treatments, by 200, 223, 126, 148 and 190% for bread wheat, durum wheat, faba bean, chickpea, and lentils, respectively. However, differences in total water productivity of crops grown under full irrigation compared to deficit irrigation were not significant. Irrigation water productivity ranged from 25 kg ha−1mm−1 in wheat with 1/3SI to 10 kg ha−1mm−1 for legumes under the FSI treatment. Unlike legumes, maximizing wheat grain yield caused a decline in water productivity.

IntroductionThe food security of any country is directly dependent on the production of its agricultural sector, and any disruption in the production process of this sector can directly threaten the food, social, economic and even political security of the country. In other words, the agricultural sector, as a productive sector, is responsible for eliminating and reducing poverty and ensuring food security. In the current situation, due to the ever-increasing demand and the significant growth of the population, the indiscriminate and incorrect exploitation of limited and non-renewable resources and reserves, as well as the occurrence of challenges such as climate change, ensuring food security and maintaining it, are of great importance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the availability of crop products in Razavi Khorasan province in two horizons of 5 and 10 years under two scenarios of full irrigation and deficit irrigation in accordance with the water capacity of the province and to provide appropriate solutions.Materials and MethodsThis study was carried out in Razavi Khorasan province for the time period of 2017-2020 as the baseline and 2024-2028 and 2024-2033 as 5- and 10-year horizons, respectively. The information needed for this study was obtained through documentary and library studies, generally by referring to the official centers that publish the country's information and published documents (especially the Ministry of Agriculture and the Agricultural Jihad Organization of Razavi Khorasan province), field information and also by completing the questionnaire from national experts and holding meetings with stakeholders and experts. Finally, the changes in the harvested area, yield, production, volume of water consumption and water productivity of important irrigated (under two scenarios of full irrigation and deficit irrigation) and rainfed crops, as well as indicators of per-capita consumption, production, demand, trade, and the percentage of self-reliance of these crops were estimated and evaluated in 5- and 10-year horizons compared to the baseline (2017-2020).Results and DiscussionAccording to the results, if the objectives of this study are achieved, the crop water requirement and total water consumption will decrease across both scenarios and time horizons, while water productivity will improve compared to the baseline. In the projected horizon periods, the yield of both irrigated and rainfed crops will increase compared to the baseline. The harvested area of irrigated crops will decrease, while the harvested area of rainfed crops will expand. However, under deficit irrigation conditions, the production of both rainfed and irrigated crops will rise, whereas irrigated crop production under full irrigation conditions will decline, aligning with water balance objectives. These changes will occur mainly due to the increase in the harvested area and production of fodder sorghum, silage, fodder beet, and autumn beet and the decrease in the harvest area and production of alfalfa, irrigated vegetable crops, and spring beet. Despite the increase in the demand of important crop products of the province in 5- and 10-year horizons by 10 and 17% (considering population growth and improvement in per-capita consumption), respectively, the amount of production of these products will decrease by 2% in 5-year horizon and increase by only 1% in 10-year horizon. Therefore, it is predicted that the self-reliance of the province's total production will decrease from 74% in the baseline to 68% and 67% in the 5- and 10-year horizons, respectively. In order to achieve the results of this study, solutions such as paying attention to aquifers and watersheds, cultivation of fallow lands, increasing soil organic matter, real development of conservation agriculture, development of autumn and waiting planting, development of alternative crops (especially fodder crops), and provision, production, distribution, and consumption of inputs in a timely and appropriate manner are suggested.ConclusionIn total, the results of this research showed that the proposed production pattern for crops in Razavi Khorasan province and 5 and 10-year horizons will be consistent with the water capacity of the province, especially in the deficit irrigation scenario. However, the realization of the results of this study requires the categories of "research", "technology", "education and empowerment", and "promotion of achievements".

IntroductionThe food security of any country is directly dependent on the production of its agricultural sector, and any disruption in the production process of this sector can directly threaten the food, social, economic and even political security of the country. In other words, the agricultural sector, as a productive sector, is responsible for eliminating and reducing poverty and ensuring food security. In the current situation, due to the ever-increasing demand and the significant growth of the population, the indiscriminate and incorrect exploitation of limited and non-renewable resources and reserves, as well as the occurrence of challenges such as climate change, ensuring food security and maintaining it, are of great importance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the availability of crop products in Razavi Khorasan province in two horizons of 5 and 10 years under two scenarios of full irrigation and deficit irrigation in accordance with the water capacity of the province and to provide appropriate solutions.Materials and MethodsThis study was carried out in Razavi Khorasan province for the time period of 2017-2020 as the baseline and 2024-2028 and 2024-2033 as 5- and 10-year horizons, respectively. The information needed for this study was obtained through documentary and library studies, generally by referring to the official centers that publish the country's information and published documents (especially the Ministry of Agriculture and the Agricultural Jihad Organization of Razavi Khorasan province), field information and also by completing the questionnaire from national experts and holding meetings with stakeholders and experts. Finally, the changes in the harvested area, yield, production, volume of water consumption and water productivity of important irrigated (under two scenarios of full irrigation and deficit irrigation) and rainfed crops, as well as indicators of per-capita consumption, production, demand, trade, and the percentage of self-reliance of these crops were estimated and evaluated in 5- and 10-year horizons compared to the baseline (2017-2020).Results and DiscussionAccording to the results, if the objectives of this study are achieved, the crop water requirement and total water consumption will decrease across both scenarios and time horizons, while water productivity will improve compared to the baseline. In the projected horizon periods, the yield of both irrigated and rainfed crops will increase compared to the baseline. The harvested area of irrigated crops will decrease, while the harvested area of rainfed crops will expand. However, under deficit irrigation conditions, the production of both rainfed and irrigated crops will rise, whereas irrigated crop production under full irrigation conditions will decline, aligning with water balance objectives. These changes will occur mainly due to the increase in the harvested area and production of fodder sorghum, silage, fodder beet, and autumn beet and the decrease in the harvest area and production of alfalfa, irrigated vegetable crops, and spring beet. Despite the increase in the demand of important crop products of the province in 5- and 10-year horizons by 10 and 17% (considering population growth and improvement in per-capita consumption), respectively, the amount of production of these products will decrease by 2% in 5-year horizon and increase by only 1% in 10-year horizon. Therefore, it is predicted that the self-reliance of the province's total production will decrease from 74% in the baseline to 68% and 67% in the 5- and 10-year horizons, respectively. In order to achieve the results of this study, solutions such as paying attention to aquifers and watersheds, cultivation of fallow lands, increasing soil organic matter, real development of conservation agriculture, development of autumn and waiting planting, development of alternative crops (especially fodder crops), and provision, production, distribution, and consumption of inputs in a timely and appropriate manner are suggested.ConclusionIn total, the results of this research showed that the proposed production pattern for crops in Razavi Khorasan province and 5 and 10-year horizons will be consistent with the water capacity of the province, especially in the deficit irrigation scenario. However, the realization of the results of this study requires the categories of "research", "technology", "education and empowerment", and "promotion of achievements".

This book discusses general concept and management issues of deficient irrigation practices, covering a wide range of field crops including cotton, maize, soybean, wheat, sugarcane, and the like, based on five years of field research implemented in fourteen different countries, in Latin America, Africa, Europe and Asia. Additionally, guidelines are given for experimental methodology and data analysis for evaluating crop yield response to deficient irrigation. Experimental data, discussions and cited references will be an asset not only to field irrigation engineers but also to research scientists including soil and irrigation scientists and agronomists, for whom the book would be an invaluable reference source.