The resolution adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 25 September 2015 is symptomatic of the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus. It postulates goals and related targets for 2030 that include (1) End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture (SDG2); (2) Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all (SDG6); and (3) Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all (SDG7). There will be tradeoffs between achieving these goals particularly in the wake of changing consumption patterns and rising demands from a growing population expected to reach more than nine billion by 2050. This paper uses global economic analysis tools to assess the impacts of long-term changes in fossil fuel prices, for example, as a result of a carbon tax under the UNFCCC or in response to new, large findings of fossil energy sources, on water and food outcomes. We find that a fossil fuel tax would not adversely affect food security and could be a boon to global food security if it reduces adverse climate change impacts.

The resolution adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 25 September 2015 is symptomatic of the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus. It postulates goals and related targets for 2030 that include (1) End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture (SDG2); (2) Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all (SDG6); and (3) Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all (SDG7). There will be tradeoffs between achieving these goals particularly in the wake of changing consumption patterns and rising demands from a growing population expected to reach more than nine billion by 2050. This paper uses global economic analysis tools to assess the impacts of long-term changes in fossil fuel prices, for example, as a result of a carbon tax under the UNFCCC or in response to new, large findings of fossil energy sources, on water and food outcomes. We find that a fossil fuel tax would not adversely affect food security and could be a boon to global food security if it reduces adverse climate change impacts.

Most fossil fuel-derived polymers used for food packaging are non-biodegradable and induce pollution by microplastic, calling for safer material. Here we review microbial production and applications of pullulan, a unique biopolymer produced by fermentation of agro-residues, using a strain named Aureobasidium pullulan. Chemically modified pullulan is widely used in food, pharmaceuticals, biomedical, and cosmetics. Compared to conventional polymers, pullulan increases the tensile strength 6–37-folds and increases the bioadhesion time 72–120-folds. Pullulan has been recently produced from agro-based waste with yields as high as 58-69 g/L.

Water is a basic resource for food and fuelwood production. In general, people in rural areas of India consume carbohydrate rich staples with small amounts of animal foods. They mostly depend upon fuelwood for cooking. This study assesses the WFs for food and fuel consumption in rural India. The research question is: What is the green, blue and grey water footprint (WF) of food and cooking fuel consumption per province in rural India (m³/cap/year). It used the WF method for the quantification. Data on food and fuelwood consumption were derived from the National Sample Survey (2011–12). Foods were categorized into 6 groups: 1. Rice; 2. Wheat; 3. Oils and fats; 4. Milk; 5. Other animal foods; and 6. Others. Cooking fuel includes: 1. Fuelwood; 2. Kerosene and 3. LPG. Data related to WFs of food were derived from literature reviews and in case of fuelwood, the WFs were calculated for all the provinces of India. Finally, the total WF of per capita consumption is calculated by adding the WF of food and fuelwood. The result shows that there is a large variation in the green, blue and grey WFs for food consumption across the provinces of India. The average WF for food consumption is about 800 m³/cap/year and for fuelwood is 1630 m³/cap/year. Rice and wheat dominate the green, blue and grey WFs for food, with variations among the provinces. The green WF of rice is larger than the green WF of wheat, while wheat has a larger blue WF. For cooking fuel, the average WF of fuelwood is much larger than the WF of fossil based cooking fuels. The total WF for fuelwood is twice the WF for food, showing that in rural areas of developing countries, fuelwood is water intensive with large impact on freshwater resources. Future prospects of increasing consumption of animal products will increase WFs. However, if also cooking fuel is considered, switching to fossil cooking fuel lowers WFs far more and compensates the increase due to larger animal food consumption. The trends for cooking fuel found in India might also be relevant for other developing countries.