Quantitatively evaluating the effects of multiple factors on the performance levels of different irrigation methods under a limited water supply in the water-food-economy nexus at the regional scale is of great significance; such evaluations can facilitate the selection of appropriate irrigation methods and schemes to reduce the contradiction between the water shortage and grain production circumstances. In this study, the distributed SWAP-WOFOST (Soil-Water-Atmosphere-Plant-WOrld FOod STudy) model was applied to a typical area of severe deep groundwater overexploitation in the North China Plain. This model was used to simulate various scenarios of sprinkler irrigation (SI) and limited surface irrigation (LSI) under the three limited irrigation quotas (i.e., 75 mm, 150 mm and 225 mm) and to further quantify the differences in crop yield, evapotranspiration and water productivity (WP) between the two irrigation methods by considering three rainfall levels and 66 soil texture profile (STP) types. Then, the impacts of irrigation methods on farmers’ net income were analyzed; the increasing extents of SI implementation scale and workday wage to improve farmers’ net income were estimated according to irrigation, rainfall and soil conditions. Under a specific limited irrigation quota, the yield and WP of winter wheat under LSI were greater than those under SI without fertigation in more than 92% of the 66 STP types under the three rainfall levels, with yield differences mainly in the range of 200–1600 kg hm−2 and WP differences mainly in the range of 0–0.5 kg m−3. In no more than five STP types (e.g., sandy or loamy sandy soil in the five layers), the yield and WP under LSI were lower than those under SI. Relative to the evapotranspiration under LSI, the evapotranspiration under SI did not show the same trend, while the ratio of transpiration to evapotranspiration under SI decreased in more than 98% of the STP types. For different irrigation quotas and rainfall levels, the farmers’ net incomes under SI were 374–1517 yuan hm−2 greater than those under LSI for up to five STP types, and they were 0–3000 yuan hm−2 lower than those under LSI for the other 92% of the STP types. When labor could be saved by more than 8 d hm−2 by improving the implementation scale of SI and the workday wage could increase to more than 100 yuan d−1, SI was recommended to obtain higher farmers’ net income in more STP types in the study area.

Increasing demand on agricultural water resources have caused a greater need for the use of municipal recycled wastewater (MRW) globally. However, in the United States, greenhouse growers have been slow to use it in their greenhouse operations. In this study, we seek to understand the factors that motivate and limit use of MRW among US growers. Using national survey data from 2019 through 2020, we developed a logistic regression model to understand the many factors influencing growers’ willingness to use MRW on food crops. We find that MRW quality is a primary concern and that growers’ willingness to use MRW is shaped by their direct and indirect knowledge of MRW, garnered from their own and others’ experiences using it. Given these findings, improving adoption of MRW requires collective experiential learning opportunities that gather target audiences with educators, policymakers, end users, and local authorities to simultaneously provide hands-on experience tailored to growers’ particular knowledge and concerns with feedback from peers.

Introduction Water is one of the most important factors of development in human societies, water scarcity, specially fresh water which is one of the main limitation for agricultural, economic and social development in most developing countries. Providing and implementing an optimal cropping pattern, in addition to better management of water and soil resources, can lead to reducing production risk, increasing the ability to deal with crises, improving employment, better management of providing services to farmers, and providing the possibility of expanding agro-based industries. In many regions of the world, including in Iran, many studies have been done to improve the cropping pattern in different regions. Despite the existing problems in designing and implementing the appropriate cropping pattern in the plains, modifying the cropping pattern based on scientific principles and emphasizing the reduction of water consumption while reducing water consumption provides the possibility of sustainable agriculture and in terms of economic and social aspects. Implementing an optimized cropping pattern in the Farahan Plain is an undeniable necessity to preserve national resources. This study was conducted with the objective of optimizing the cropping pattern in the area, taking into account multiple criteria.   Methodology In this research, considering the importance of determining the cropping pattern based on the multiple objectives of the decision makers, it was tried to determine the optimal cropping pattern by using mathematical programming and fuzzy logic by establishing a compromise between the objectives of the cropping pattern. The model considered for this study was in the framework of the goal of the maximum ideal distance (Fuzzy Composite Distance). Also, in order to use water resources sustainably, scenarios of cropping patterns are presented based on different conditions of water resources uses. Based on the basin's water resource stability, an optimal cropping pattern was developed to address the conditions of normal water resource exploitation, as well as sustainable and unsustainable scenarios. Each scenario corresponds to a specific period. To achieve this, a multi-objective planning approach was utilized, integrating water, food, energy, and economic profit indicators. The resulting optimal cropping pattern considers stable water resource utilization during normal, drought, and wet periods, ensuring sustainable conditions.   Results and Discussion The results showed that the amount of water consumed by the optimal cropping pattern compared to the existing cropping pattern under normal, drought and wet conditions is reduced by 23.2, 29.2 and 18.1%, respectively. On the other hand, compared to the existing cropping pattern, the amount of calories produced by the optimal cropping pattern under normal, drought and wet conditions increases by 51.7, 61.9 and 45.2%, the average energy efficiency increases by 40.9, 42.8 and 35.8% and the net profit productivity increases by 43.3, 30.9 and 44.2 %, respectively. Based on the obtained results, it can be seen that in the optimal cropping pattern in drought conditions, the cultivated area of crops such as potatoes, onions, tomatoes, grain corn, sugar beets, beans, alfalfa and watermelons should reach to the zero or be at the lowest possible level. In normal and drought conditions, the cultivated area of these crops should be minimal. On the other hand, the area under cultivation of crops such as fodder sorghum, fodder corn, saffron, cumin, camellia and medicinal plants should be increased and the cultivation of these crops should be promoted at the region. Also, regarding horticultural products, the cultivated area of walnut, apple, peach, apricot and almond orchards should be minimized and replaced with plants such as grapes, oleaster, jujube, barberry, rose, and figs. Conclusion Based on the obtained results, it was found that the use of the optimal cropping pattern derived from the indicators of water, food, energy and economic profit is completely superior and preferred over the existing cropping pattern and single purpose optimal cropping pattern. In order to achieve sustainable water resource management, it is recommended to modify the cropping pattern during drought, normal, and wet periods based on the suggested optimal cropping pattern. The existing cropping pattern currently falls short in terms of achieving the four objectives of water, food, energy, and economic profit. Therefore, it is crucial to develop main plans and strategies in the Farahan Plain that align with the implementation of the proposed optimal cropping pattern. By doing so, it will be possible to optimize the allocation of water resources and achieve improved outcomes in terms of water availability, food production, energy efficiency, and economic profitability.

Foram analisadas estratégias alimentares na fase juvenil e de engorda do tambaqui com a diminuição do número de alimentações diárias (frequência), a prática de jejum e realimentação. Os resultados obtidos no projeto foram a diminuição da frequência alimentar para juvenis em uma única refeição. Juvenis alimentados com base na porcentagem de biomassa e saciedade aparente podem ser submetidos a até dois dias de restrição alimentar, além de diminuir em até 35% os custos com fornecimento de ração. O tempo de trânsito gastrointestinal para juvenis é de 108 horas. Tambaquis destinados à engorda e submetidos a até um dia de restrição alimentar apresentam crescimento compensatório parcial. Nessa fase, a economia de ração é menos proeminente.

Foram analisadas estratégias alimentares na fase juvenil e de engorda do tambaqui com a diminuição do número de alimentações diárias (frequência), a prática de jejum e realimentação. Os resultados obtidos no projeto foram a diminuição da frequência alimentar para juvenis em uma única refeição. Juvenis alimentados com base na porcentagem de biomassa e saciedade aparente podem ser submetidos a até dois dias de restrição alimentar, além de diminuir em até 35% os custos com fornecimento de ração. O tempo de trânsito gastrointestinal para juvenis é de 108 horas. Tambaquis destinados à engorda e submetidos a até um dia de restrição alimentar apresentam crescimento compensatório parcial. Nessa fase, a economia de ração é menos proeminente.

Agri-food systems face multiple challenges. They must deal with prevailing structural weaknesses, partly deepened by the disruptions from the COVID-19 pandemic, civil conflicts, and climate change. Addressing structural weaknesses – such as inequitable access to healthy and nutritious food for all, loss of livelihoods and incomes, and increasing environmental shocks – requires not only technological, but also institutional innovations, as well as economic and policy responses. While development interventions often focus on technological innovations, they lack attention to the enabling policy environment and the political economy drivers necessary to achieve policy, economic, and social impact at the national level. In addition, solutions often fail to analyze the broader enabling environment in which policies are designed and implemented at the national level. A comprehensive understanding of the policy environment coupled with appropriate technological and institutional solutions can influence the success or failure of development interventions. However, political economy and policy analysis considerations are inadequately explored in the quest to transform food systems. Identifying the right policies and overcoming barriers to the implementation of development interventions fundamentally requires an understanding of the political economy and policy processes that shape policymaking. Despite numerous emerging approaches and frameworks for conducting political economy and policy analysis, practitioners and researchers working across food, land, and water systems lack a consolidated knowledge base. This Political Economy and Policy Analysis (PEPA) sourcebook aims to fill that knowledge gap.

The Buffalo River catchment in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, has limited water resource infrastructure development, and climate change is predicted to increase its water supply deficits by exacerbating water distribution inequalities. This study evaluates and optimises current climate change policy plans on the Buffalo River catchments water system to aid in assessing the sustainability of policies that address the aforementioned challenges. The water–energy–food (WEF) nexus approach, which encourages system thinking by considering interconnections among water, energy, and food resources when developing integrated natural resource management strategies, was used to perform the evaluation. The water system's reliability in meeting projected domestic, agricultural, and energy water demands under climate change conditions was used for gauging the sustainability of the development plans. Findings projected the existing water policy plans to increase the domestic water provision by >70% under climate change; however, the <3% increase in irrigation and energy generation water demand coverage yielded a significant contrast in reliability between densely populated areas and regions with extensive agricultural activities. The optimised policy plans, which improved water provision for all considered sectors increased by >20% under climate change, are thus recommended for future water resource management research and dialogue in the Buffalo River catchment.

Under the CGIAR Initiative on National Policies and Strategies (NPS), International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and Council for Energy, Environment, and Water (CEEW) jointly organized a National Stakeholder Workshop on “Policy Coherence for Food, Land, and Water” in India on 16th June 2023 at India Habitat Center in New Delhi. Guided by NITI Aayog, an apex public policy think tank of the Government of India, IWMI and CEEW researched the policy landscape at the national level in the food, land, and water (FLW) sectors, shortlisting seven central government schemes to understand ways to strengthen policy coherence and impact. The workshop was attended by representatives from the Ministry of Jal Shakti, the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare, NITI Aayog and 17 government and civil society organizations working in the food, land, and water sectors. Under the able guidance of Debashree Mukherjee (Special Secretary, Ministry of Jal Shakti) and Avinash Mishra (Advisor, NITI Aayog), the participants discussed the study’s key recommendations, existing institutional mechanisms to catalyze coherence, harnessing synergies and balancing trade-offs across the food, land, and water sectors.

Abstract Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver an opinion on water lentil protein concentrate from a mixture of Lemna gibba and Lemna minor as a novel food (NF) pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. Water lentil protein concentrate is produced from two water lentil species (L. gibba and L. minor) by separation of the protein fraction of the plant material from fibres, followed by pasteurisation and spray drying. The NF consists mainly of protein, fibre, fat and ash. The applicant proposed to use the NF as a food ingredient in a variety of food categories and as a food supplement. The target population is the general population when used as a food ingredient and exclusively adults when used as a food supplement. The Panel considers that taking into account the composition of the NF and the proposed conditions of use, the consumption of the NF is not nutritionally disadvantageous. There are no concerns regarding genotoxicity of the NF. The Panel considers that the risk of the NF triggering allergic reactions is low. The Panel concludes that the NF, water lentil protein concentrate from a mixture of L. gibba and L. minor, is safe under the proposed conditions of use.

In today's world, ensuring water, energy and food security, as well as conserving ecosystems are some of the most pressing sustainability challenges. Our current systems of food production, energy use, and water management often operate in silos. However, these sectors are, by nature, interconnected, food production requires both water and energy, while pumping, treating, and transporting water require energy, and energy production requires water, among many other interrelationships. This siloed approach to management leads to a lack of coordination and significant trade-offs across systems. Moreover, this lack of coordination across sectors and socioeconomic activities has negative consequences for ecosystem conservation, which is vital for ensuring natural resource security. To tackle these issues, it is imperative to design policies or solutions that can effectively address sectoral and cross-sectoral challenges. The water-energy-food (WEF) nexus approach is a systemic and integrated approach designed to manage resources and coordinate sectors comprehensively. By increasing efficiency, reducing trade-offs, building synergies, and improving governance across sectors and resources, the nexus approach has the potential to enhance water, energy, and food security. These characteristics make the WEF nexus an effective approach for supporting policy making. Consequently, the nexus approach has gained considerable attention in the last decade, leading the scientific community to develop new methodologies and adapt existing tools to address cross-sectoral challenges, and guide policy making efforts. Despite the advancements and ongoing efforts, some of these methodologies are too theoretical, conceptual, or complex to put into practice. Achieving effective governance of the WEF nexus remains elusive, making it difficult to address water-energy-food security and ecosystem conservation. Within the scope of this PhD thesis, we have conducted a literature review and identified up to eleven main features in methodologies and tools that are necessary to effectively evaluate the WEF nexus. Based on these features and our knowledge, we selected four criteria that are crucial to operationalize the nexus: (1) tools that integrate quantitative and qualitative information, (2) tools capable of analysing cross-sectoral policies, (3) tools capable of assessing at different spatial scales, and (4) tools capable of simulating future scenarios at different temporal scales. After evaluating various methodologies and tools that address the nexus, we have found no methodology or tool that meets all four criteria. Therefore, the overarching objective of this thesis is to fill this gap in nexus studies by developing a novel participatory WEF nexus framework for co-designing and evaluating nexus solutions, encompassing these four criteria. The Solution Evaluation Framework (SEF) consists of five main phases: (1) identifying nexus solutions, (2) nexus dialogues, (3) nexus modelling, (4) nexus evidence, and (5) nexus-coherence assessment. Throughout the evaluation process, the framework integrates various methodologies. In the nexus dialogues phase, we engage stakeholders and experts from different nexus sectors to identify challenges, co-design solutions and understand the cross-sectoral interlinkages using Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping (FCM). In the nexus modelling phase, we apply system dynamics models (SDM) to simulate different solution scenarios and quantify cross-sectoral interlinkages. Finally, in the nexus-coherence assessment phase, we utilize cross-impact analysis (CIA) and network theory to integrate quantitative and qualitative methodologies and measure the synergies and trade-offs of implementing a nexus solution. The other objective of this thesis is to test the usefulness and applicability of the developed framework. To achieve this, the framework was applied to a practical case study involving an increase in irrigation water prices in Andalusia, Spain for the horizon of 2030. Following the methodology of the SEF, we worked with a panel of experts representing various sectors in Andalusia. Additionally, a system dynamics model was developed to simulate the WEF nexus system in the region. Finally, cross-impact analysis (CIA) and network theory were used to evaluate the solution. The results of the case study revealed that there is a sensitive relationship between water availability, irrigation costs and agricultural production, mainly due to the high level of technology in agricultural irrigation systems in the region. An increase in water price could generate synergies by promoting water security and ecosystem conservation. However, trade-offs were observed, particularly impacting the food sector in the region. The main challenges encountered in applying the framework were the integration of qualitative and quantitative information and the reconciliation of spatial and temporal scales across sectors. Beyond the obtained results, the evaluation of this case study allowed us to demonstrate the capability of the SEF to evaluate nexus solutions by uncovering hidden properties, identifying leverage points, and highlighting key aspects of the complex cross-sectoral system. The framework can be adapted to accommodate different case studies, considering their unique challenges and spatial and temporal scales. Furthermore, it facilitates the evaluation and coordination of multiple policies simultaneously, thereby contributing to nexus-coherence policy making, which gives it a competitive advantage over other methodologies focused on nexus analysis. To conclude, participatory approaches that combine qualitative and quantitative methods prove suitable for identifying and evaluating solutions aimed at improving WEF nexus governance. RESUMEN Garantizar la seguridad hídrica, energética y de alimentos, y lograr la conservación de los ecosistemas, son algunos de los desafíos de sostenibilidad más apremiantes de nuestros tiempos. Nuestros sistemas de producción de alimentos, uso de energía y gestión del agua a menudo funcionan por separado. Sin embargo, estos sectores estar intrínsecamente conectados, la producción de alimentos requiere agua y energía, mientras que el bombeo, tratamiento y transporte de agua requieren energía, a la vez, la producción de energía requiere agua, entre muchas otras interrelaciones. La gestión sectorial aislada genera una falta de coordinación y perjuicios significativos entre los distintos sistemas. Además, esta falta de coordinación entre sectores y actividades socioeconómicas tiene consecuencias negativas para la conservación de los ecosistemas, que son fundamentales para garantizar la seguridad de los recursos naturales. Para abordar esta problemática, es imperativo diseñar políticas o soluciones que puedan abordar de manera efectiva los retos sectoriales e intersectoriales. El enfoque de nexo agua-energía-alimentación (WEF por sus siglas en inglés) es un enfoque sistémico e integrado diseñado para gestionar recursos y coordinar los sectores de manera holística. Permite aumentar la eficiencia, reducir los perjuicios, crear sinergias y mejorar la gobernanza en todos los sectores y recursos, en ese sentido el enfoque del nexo tiene el potencial de mejorar la seguridad hídrica, energética y alimentaria. Además, estas características hacen que sea un enfoque eficaz para guiar la formulación de políticas. Es por esto por lo que el enfoque nexo WEF ha ganado considerable atención en la comunidad científica. Ha habido un impulso por desarrollar nuevas metodologías y adaptar herramientas existentes que permitan abordar los desafíos intersectoriales y guiar la formulación de políticas. Sin embargo, a pesar de los avances y los esfuerzos en curso, algunas de estas metodologías son demasiado teóricas, conceptuales o complejas para ponerlas en práctica. Todavía no se ha logrado alcanzar la gobernanza efectiva del nexo WEF, lo que dificulta garantizar la seguridad del agua, la energía y los alimentos, y lograr la conservación del ecosistema. Dentro del marco de esta tesis doctoral, hemos realizado una revisión de la literatura e identificado hasta once características principales en metodologías y herramientas que son necesarias para abordar de manera efectiva el nexo WEF. Basándonos en estas características y nuestro conocimiento, hemos seleccionamos cuatro criterios que son cruciales para operacionalizar el nexo, estos son: (1) herramientas que integren información cuantitativa y cualitativa, (2) herramientas capaces de analizar políticas intersectoriales, (3) herramientas capaces de evaluar a diferentes escalas espaciales, y (4) herramientas capaces de simular escenarios futuros a diferentes escalas temporales. Después de hacer una evaluación de las metodologías y herramientas existentes, no hemos encontrado ninguna que cumpla con estos cuatro criterios. Por lo tanto, el objetivo general de esta tesis es cubrir el vacío en los estudios de nexo mediante el desarrollo de un novedoso marco participativo para co-diseñar y evaluar soluciones de nexo, abarcando estos cuatro criterios. El Marco de Evaluación de Soluciones (SEF por sus siglas en inglés) consta de cinco fases principales: (1) identificación de soluciones de nexo, (2) diálogos de nexo, (3) modelado de nexo, (4) evidencia de nexo y (5) evaluación de coherencia de nexo. A lo largo del proceso de evaluación, el marco integra varias metodologías. En la fase de diálogos de nexo, involucramos a un panel de expertos de los diferentes sectores para identificar desafíos, co-diseñar soluciones y comprender las relaciones intersectoriales utilizando mapas cognitivos difusos (FCM). En la fase de modelado de nexos, aplicamos modelos de dinámica de sistemas (SDM) para simular diferentes escenarios de solución y cuantificar las relaciones intersectoriales. Finalmente, en la fase de evaluación de la coherencia del nexo, utilizamos análisis de impacto cruzado (CIA) y teoría de redes para integrar metodologías cuantitativas y cualitativas y medir las sinergias y perjuicios de implementar una solución de nexo. El siguiente objetivo de esta tesis es probar la utilidad y aplicabilidad del marco de evaluación de soluciones desarrollado. Para esto, se estudió el aumento del precio del agua de riego en Andalucía - España en el horizonte 2030 como caso de estudio práctico. Siguiendo el marco metodológico SEF, se trabajó con un panel de expertos de varios sectores de Andalucía. Adicionalmente, se desarrolló un modelo de dinámica de sistemas para simular el nexo WEF en la región. Finalmente, se utilizó el análisis de impacto cruzado (CIA) y la teoría de redes para evaluar la solución. Los resultados del estudio revelaron que existe una relación sensible entre la disponibilidad de agua, los costos de riego y la producción agrícola. Esto principalmente por el alto grado de tecnificación de los sistemas de riego agrícola de la región. El incremento en los precios del agua podría promover la seguridad hídrica y la conservación de los ecosistemas. Sin embargo, podría generar perjuicios que afectan particularmente al sector alimentario de la región. Los principales desafíos encontrados al aplicar el marco fueron la integración de información cualitativa y cuantitativa, y la reconciliación de escalas espaciales y temporales entre sectores. Más allá de los resultados obtenidos, la evaluación de este caso de estudio nos permitió demostrar la capacidad del marco SEF para evaluar soluciones de nexo al descubrir propiedades ocultas, identificar puntos de apalancamiento y resaltar aspectos clave en el complejo sistema intersectorial. Además, facilita la evaluación y coordinación de múltiples políticas simultáneamente, contribuyendo así a la formulación de políticas coherentes para el nexo. Todo esto otorga una ventaja competitiva sobre otras metodologías centradas en el análisis de nexo. Como conclusión final, los enfoques participativos que combinan métodos cualitativos y cuantitativos apuntan a ser los adecuados para identificar y evaluar soluciones destinadas a mejorar la gobernanza del nexo WEF.