Mandalay is a major city in central Myanmar with a high urban population and which lacks a central wastewater management system, a solid waste disposal process, and access to treated drinking water. The purpose of this study is to investigate the groundwater quality of local dug wells and tube wells, determine quantitative data on characteristics of the Amarapura Aquifer, and compare seasonal variations in groundwater flow and quality. Water samples were collected during the dry and wet seasons, then analyzed for major ion chemistry using ion chromatography to identify indicators of wastewater contamination transport to the shallow aquifer and to compare seasonal variations in groundwater chemistry. An open-source analytic element model, GFLOW, was used to describe the physical hydrogeology and to determine groundwater flow characteristics in the aquifer. Hydrogeochemistry data and numerical groundwater flow models provide evidence that the Amarapura Aquifer is susceptible to contamination from anthropogenic sources. The dominant water types in most dug wells and tube wells is Na-Cl, but there is no known geologic source of NaCl near Mandalay. Many of these wells also contain water with high electrical conductivity, chloride, nitrate, ammonium, and E. coli. Physical measurements and GFLOW characterize groundwater flow directions predominantly towards the Irrawaddy River and with average linear velocities ranging from 1.76 × 10⁻² m/day (2.04 × 10⁻⁷ m/s) to 9.25 m/day (1.07 × 10⁻⁴ m/s). This is the first hydrogeological characterization conducted in Myanmar.

Groundwater resources are important sources of drinking water in Africa, and they are hugely important in sustaining urban livelihoods and supporting a diverse range of commercial and agricultural activities. Groundwater has an important role in improving health in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). An estimated 250 million people (40% of the total) live in urban centres across SSA. SSA has experienced a rapid expansion in urban populations since the 1950s, with increased population densities as well as expanding geographical coverage. Estimates suggest that the urban population in SSA will double between 2000 and 2030. The quality status of shallow urban groundwater resources is often very poor due to inadequate waste management and source protection, and poses a significant health risk to users, while deeper borehole sources often provide an important source of good quality drinking water. Given the growth in future demand from this finite resource, as well as potential changes in future climate in this region, a detailed understanding of both water quantity and quality is required to use this resource sustainably. This paper provides a comprehensive assessment of the water quality status, both microbial and chemical, of urban groundwater in SSA across a range of hydrogeological terrains and different groundwater point types. Lower storage basement terrains, which underlie a significant proportion of urban centres in SSA, are particularly vulnerable to contamination. The relationship between mean nitrate concentration and intrinsic aquifer pollution risk is assessed for urban centres across SSA. Current knowledge gaps are identified and future research needs highlighted.

The groundwater resources potential of Ethiopia is estimated to be about 40 billion cubic meters. Groundwater has been used as the main source of water supply since the 1970s for the main cities, towns and dispersed rural communities across the country, where provision of reticulated surface-water schemes is often expensive because of initial project construction costs and poor water quality. The exponential growth of the urban population and agriculture-led industrial development have resulted in greater attention to groundwater as the potentially cost-effective water supply source. As part of the growing focus on the use of groundwater, the Ethiopian government is currently implementing irrigation projects. One plan involves nine irrigation projects covering an estimated area of 8,000 ha, being developed on a pilot scale, with 9,000 test wells, 28,000 monitoring wells and 14,657 spring improvements. If this unprecedented Ethiopian groundwater-centred development plan is implemented successfully at such a scale, it is highly likely that its success will persuade other Sub-Saharan developing nations to put in place the necessary policies, regulations and investment for infrastructure and capacity development for exploring, exploiting and managing their groundwater resources.