Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina. Facultad de Pesquería. Departamento Académico de Acuicultura e Industrias Pesqueras | La investigación evaluó el cultivo experimental de tilapia Oreochromis niloticus en dos sistemas: (i) cero recambio de agua y tecnología biofloc (SBF), y (ii) recambio de agua al 20% (Control), durante la fase I de inversión sexual (400 alevines por tanque con pesos promedios de 0.012 ± 0.001g) y la fase II de precría (100 alevines por tanque con pesos promedios de 0.128 ± 0.001g), en 28 y 35 días respectivamente. Se empleó un diseño completamente al azar con dos tratamientos (Control y SBF), cada uno con cuatro repeticiones distribuidos en ocho tanques de 0.03 m3 . Se administró una dieta comercial de 46.5% de proteína a tasas alimenticias del 30% (fase I) y 15% (fase II), asimismo, se adicionó melaza (carbono orgánico) y bicarbonato de sodio (carbonatos) al inicio de cada fase. Semanalmente se monitorearon los parámetros productivos de los peces y parámetros de la calidad del agua. En la fase I, los alevines de tilapia cultivados en el tratamiento SBF obtuvieron los mejores valores productivos (supervivencia: 67.25%, biomasa: 34.540 g, T.C.: 0.004 g.día-1 , T.C.E.: 8.501%.día-1 , menor tasa de conversión alimenticia: 3.082), debido a la producción de sólidos sedimentables (hasta 24 ml.l-1 ), que a través de los compuestos bioactivos propios del biofloc, confirió resistencia a los peces ante las variaciones de la alcalinidad total y compuestos nitrogenados tóxicos. Por el contrario, en la fase II, los alevines de tilapia cultivados en el tratamiento control obtuvieron mejores valores productivos (supervivencia: 94.67%, biomasa: 442.700 g, T.C: 0.130 g.día-1 , T.C.E: 10.203%.día-1 ), por efecto de los recambios diarios de agua que disminuyeron las concentraciones de compuestos nitrogenados tóxicos, lo cual favoreció en el crecimiento de los peces. Durante ambas fases, el tratamiento SBF mantuvo una relación C:N baja (6.72), ocasionando que las bacterias heterótrofas no asimilen adecuadamente el NAT, lo cual se evidencia con la decreciente producción del floc. | This study evaluated the experimental rearing of Oreochromis niloticus fingerling into two systems: (i) without water exchange and biofloc technology (SBF), and (ii) with 20% water exchange (control), during the sexual inversion (400 fish per tank average weight: 0.012 ± 0.001 g) and precría phase (100 fish per tank average weight: 0.128 ± 0.001 g), in 28 and 35 days respectively. For this, a completely randomized design was used with two treatments (Control and SBF) of four replicates each one, distributed in eight tanks of 0.03 m3 . It was fed a commercial diet of 46.5% protein at food rates of 30% (phase I) and 15% (phase II), likewise, molasses (organic carbon) and sodium bicarbonate (carbonates) were added at the beginning of each phase. Weekly, were monitored the productive parameters of the fish, as well as parameters of the water quality. In phase I, the tilapia fry reared in the SBF treatment obtained the best productive values (survival: 67.25%, biomass: 34.540 g, T.C.: 0.004 g.day -1 , T.C.E.: 8.501 %.day-1 , lower feed conversion rate: 3.082) due to the production of sedimentable solids (up to 24 ml.l-1 ), which, through the bioactive compounds of the biofloc, conferred resistance to fish against variations of total alkalinity and toxic nitrogen compounds. On the contrary, in phase II, tilapia fry reared in the control treatment obtained better productive values (survival: 94.67%, biomass: 442.700 g, T.C.: 0.130 g.day1 , T.C.E.: 10.203 %.day-1 ), as a result of daily water changes that decreased concentrations of toxic nitrogen compounds, which favored the growth of fish. During both phases, the SBF treatment maintained a low C:N ratio (6.72), causing the heterotrophic bacteria not to properly assimilate the TAN, which is evidenced by the decreasing production of the floc | Tesis

RESUMEN: Los residuos de las ganaderías como el estiércol bovino, generan grandes focos de contaminación al no ser tratados adecuadamente. La implementación de biodigestores se presenta como una alternativa para tratar estos residuos y convertirlos en un excelente abono orgánico para los cultivos. Teniendo como objetivo general, evaluar rendimiento y calidad de biofertilizante obtenido a partir de biodigestores artesanales, utilizando 3 mezclas de agua y excreta bovina. T1: 25% agua, 75% excremento bovino, T2: 50% agua, 50% excremento bovino, T3: 75% agua, 25% excremento bovino. A esto y mucho más se le atribuye la importancia de la presente investigación, la cual tuvo una duración de 90 días, del 7 de diciembre del 2018 hasta el 08 de marzo del 2019. En la variable de pH no se encontró diferencia estadísticamente, pero los valores obtenidos mostraron que están en los límites aceptables T1: 6.67, T2: 6.57 y T3: 6.58. Por otra parte, el porcentaje de nitrógeno estadísticamente no se encontró diferencia significativa, por lo tanto, en los tres tratamientos se comportó igual. El sustrato que obtuvo el más alto porcentaje de fosforo fue el Tratamiento 2, que contiene igual contenido de estiércol bovino y agua con un promedio de (0.63%), le sigue el Tratamiento 1 con mayor contenido de estiércol bovino de (0.62%) y el Tratamiento 3 de menor cantidad de estiércol bovino (0.53%). Respecto al porcentaje de potasio estadísticamente no es significativo, sin embargo, los datos obtenidos fueron T1: (1.66%), T2: (1,30%) y T3: (0.79%). Además, en el análisis de calcio se encontró que el Tratamiento 2 fue el que tuvo el mayor porcentaje (1.72%), siguiendo así el Tratamiento 1 de (1.69%) y el Tratamiento 3 de (1.41%). En cuanto al porcentaje de magnesio estadísticamente es significativo, teniendo el Tratamiento 1 con 0.76%, siguiendo con el Tratamiento 2 con 0.64% y en último dato el Tratamiento 3 con 0.49%. De acuerdo a la cantidad y porcentaje de materia seca en biofertilizantes el de mayor cantidad y porcentaje fue el Tratamiento 1 con 0.92kg y 19.93%. Respectivamente siguiendo el Tratamiento 2 con 0.51kg y 10.82% y por último el Tratamiento 3 0.27kg y 5.86% para cada una de las variables. Cabe considerar, que por otra parte la variable de temperatura interna mostró estadísticamente significancia con mayor temperatura el tratamiento 2 con 31.53°C, luego el tratamiento 3 con 31.37°C y por último el T 1 con menor temperatura de 30.55°C. Por lo tanto, realizando el análisis económico se determinó la utilidad neta y la relación B/C de cada uno de los tratamientos. Describiendo, además, que en los tres tratamientos se encontró perdidas en la utilidad, debido que la producción fue menor. Así mismo en el B/C obteniendo los siguientes datos Tratamiento 1 $ -107.96 (b/c $ 0.32), Tratamiento 2 $ -131.05 (b/c $0.18) y Tratamiento3 $ -144.47(b/c $0.09) ABSTRACT: Residues from livestock, such as bovine manure, generate large sources of contamination by not being adequately treated. The implementation of biodigesters is presented as an alternative to treat this waste and turn it into an excellent organic fertilizer for crops. With the general objective of evaluating the performance and quality of the biofertilizer obtained from artisan biodigesters, using 3 mixtures of water and bovine excreta. T1: 25% water, 75% bovine excrement, T2: 50% water, 50% bovine excrement, T3: 75% water, 25% bovine excrement. To this and much more, the importance of the present investigation is attributed, which lasted 90 days, from December 7, 2018 to March 8, 2019. No statistically difference was found in the pH variable, but The values ​​obtained showed that they are within the acceptable limits T1: 6.67, T2: 6.57 and T3: 6.58. On the other hand, the percentage of nitrogen statistically did not find a significant difference, therefore, in the three treatments it behaved the same. The substrate that obtained the highest percentage of phosphorus was Treatment 2, which contains the same content of bovine manure and water with an average of (0.63%), followed by Treatment 1 with a higher content of bovine manure of (0.62%) and Treatment 3 with the least amount of bovine manure (0.53%). Regarding the percentage of potassium, it is not statistically significant, however, the data obtained were T1: (1.66%), T2: (1.30%) and T3: (0.79%). In addition, in the calcium analysis it was found that Treatment 2 had the highest percentage (1.72%), thus following Treatment 1 of (1.69%) and Treatment 3 of (1.41%). Regarding the percentage of magnesium, it is statistically significant, having Treatment 1 with 0.76%, continuing with Treatment 2 with 0.64% and lastly Treatment 3 with 0.49%. According to the quantity and percentage of dry matter in biofertilizers, the one with the highest quantity and percentage was Treatment 1 with 0.92kg and 19.93%. Respectively following Treatment 2 with 0.51kg and 10.82% and finally Treatment 3 0.27kg and 5.86% for each of the variables. It should be considered that on the other hand the internal temperature variable showed statistically significant with higher temperature treatment 2 with 31.53 ° C, then treatment 3 with 31.37 ° C and finally T 1 with a lower temperature of 30.55 ° C. Therefore, performing the economic analysis, the net profit and the B / C ratio of each of the treatments were determined. Describing, in addition, that in the three treatments losses in utility were found, due to the fact that the production was lower. Also in the B / C obtaining the following data Treatment 1 $ -107.96 (b / c $ 0.32), Treatment 2 $ -131.05 (b / c $ 0.18) and Treatment3 $ -144.47 (b / c $ 0.09)

El objetivo de este trabajo es generar una propuesta desde la ingeniería ambiental para el aprovechamiento sostenible de aguas lluvias por medio de un VAC System aplicado a la finca Nanche en Pandi, Cundinamarca, y así contribuir a la gestión integral del recurso hídrico. Partiendo de un DEM, se procesaron diferentes variables climatológicas, topográficas, hidrológicas y agroecológicas, a través de herramientas informáticas y SIG. El diseño incluye un estanque con capacidad para 600 m3, que cubre la totalidad del recurso disponible sobre un área de captación de 8064 m2 en el mes de mayor precipitación. En el estanque se criarán peces guppy, carpas y tilapias, y alrededor de él se hará ganadería de leche con 12 vacas de especie criolla en 6 ha, y agricultura con cercas vivas de naranja y guayaba, y cultivos de banano, papaya, yuca y maíz en 5 ha, además de un pequeño huerto casero. Así, se aprovechará casi el 100% del área de la finca (11,13 ha). Además, se propone un arreglo técnico (cronograma), que especifica el desarrollo de cada una de las actividades a lo largo del año, y un presupuesto, que resultó en aproximadamente 60,000,000 COP para iniciar el sistema desde cero. La demanda de recurso hídrico del sistema (10,994,977.86 L/mes) es del 94% de su disponibilidad (11,647,603.40 L/mes). El VAC System es fácilmente replicable y muy efectivo, pudiendo quintuplicar la producción y, consecuentemente, el rendimiento económico de la finca. Las abundantes ventajas ambientales del sistema lo hacen muy apropiado para el sector rural. | Ingeniero Ambiental | Pregrado | The objective of this work is to generate a proposal from environmental engineering for the sustainable use of rainwater through a VAC System applied to the Nanche farm in Pandi, Cundinamarca, and thus contribute to the Integrated Water Resource Management. Starting from a DEM, different climatological, topographic, hydrological and agroecological variables were processed, through computer tools and GIS. The design includes a pond with a capacity of 600 m3, which covers the entire available hydric resource over a catchment area of 8,064 m2 in the month with the highest rainfall. In the pond, guppy fish, carp and tilapia will be raised, and around it there will be cattle raising with 12 “criolla” cows in 6 ha, and agriculture with live fences of orange and guayaba, and crops of banana, papaya, yucca and corn in 5 ha, in addition to a small home garden. Thereby, almost 100% of the area of the farm (11.13 ha) will be used. In addition, a technical arrangement (schedule) is proposed, that specifies the development of each of the activities throughout the year, and a budget, which resulted in approximately 60,000,000 COP to start the system from scratch. The demand for water resources in the system (10,994,977.86 L/month) is only 30% of its availability (11,647,603.40 L/month). The VAC System is easily replicable and very effective, being able to quintuple the production and, consequently, the economic performance of the farm. The abundant environmental advantages of the system make it very suitable for the rural sector.

A concentração de cloro livre residual é um parâmetro importante para garantia da potabilidade da água. Esse analito é responsável pela desinfecção e, com isso, qualifica a eficiência do sistema de tratamento da água. Segundo o Ministério da Saúde, a concentração de cloro livre residual deve estar entre 0,2 e 2 mg L -1 em todos os pontos da rede de distribuição. O presente trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento e a validação de duas metodologias empregando os reagentes N,N-dietil-p-fenilendiamina (DPD) e 3,3-dimetilbenzidina (orto-toluidina) para determinação de cloro livre residual em água utilizando um sistema de análise por injeção em fluxo (FIA) e um microdispositivo construído com a tecnologia de sinterização de cerâmicas a baixas temperaturas (LTCC). Em ambas as metodologias desenvolvidas, o sinal analítico foi monitorado pela câmera de um smartphone e, através de um aplicativo (Color Grab) foi possível obter os valores de dos sinais vermelho, verde e azul (RGB) das imagens digitais, sendo eles inversamente proporcionais a concentração do analito. Os parâmetros para otimização do sistema FIA foram: vazão, pH e concentração da solução carregadora, concentração do reagente cromogênico, vazão dos reagentes e comprimento da bobina helicoidal. As validações das metodologias foram observadas pela avaliação da curva analítica com faixa de trabalho entre 0,1 e 2,5 mg L -1 ; o método DPD apresentou uma correlação de 0,9963, um limite de detecção de 0,023 mg L -1 e limite de quantificação de 0,077 mg L -1 ; o método da orto-toluidina apresentou uma correlação de 0,9910, um limite de detecção de 0,026 mg L -1 e limite de quantificação de 0,089 mg L -1 . Foram estudados os possíveis interferentes: cálcio, magnésio, ferro, sulfato e sódio, a cor verdadeira e os sólidos suspensos totais na determinação de cloro residual em água potável. Somente a cor verdadeira e sólidos suspensos totais causaram erros significativos nas análises. O emprego de um sistema FIA, no qual foi acoplado um microdispositivo construído com tecnologia LTCC, assim como o uso de um smartphone como detector, pode ser considerada uma proposta inovadora, pois não há nenhum estudo relatado naliteratura, até o momento, propondo este tipo de metodologia para a determinação de cloro livre residual em água. Palavras-chave: Cloro livre residual. Análise por injeção em fluxo. Microdispositivo. Smartphone. Determinação. | The concentration of residual free chlorine is an important parameter to guarantee water potability. This analyte is responsible for disinfection and, therefore, qualifies the efficiency of the water treatment system. According to the Ministry of Health, the concentration of residual free chlorine must be between 0.2 and 2 mg L -1 at all points of the distribution network. This work presents the development and validation of two methodologies using N,N-diethyl-p-phenylendiamine (DPD) and 3,3- dimethylbenzidine (ortho-toluidine) reagents to determine residual free chlorine in water using a flow injection analysis system (FIA) and a microdevice built with Low Temperature co-fired Ceramics (LTCC) technology. In both methodologies developed, the analytical signal was monitored by a smartphone camera and, through an app (Color Grab) it was possible to obtain the RGB (red, green, blue) values of the digital images, which are proportional to the concentration of the analyte. The parameters for optimization of the FIA system were: flow, pH and concentration of the loading solution, concentration of the chromogenic reagent, flow of the reagents and length of the helical coil. The validations of the methodologies were observed by evaluating the analytical curve with a working range between 0.1 and 2.5 mg L -1 ; the DPD method showed a correlation of 0.9963, a detection limit of 0.023 mg L -1 and a quantification limit of 0.077 mg L- 1 ; the ortho-toluidine method showed a correlation of 0.9910, a detection limit of 0.026 mg L -1 and a quantification limit of 0.089 mg L -1 . The possible interferents were studied: calcium, magnesium, iron, sulfate and sodium, the true color and the total suspended solids in the determination of residual chlorine in drinking water. Only true color and total suspended solids caused significant errors in the analysis. The use of an FIA system, in which a microdevice built with LTCC technology was coupled, as well as the use of a smartphone as a detector, can be considered an innovative proposal, as there is no study reported in the literature, so far, proposing this type of methodology for the determination of residual free chlorine in water.Keywords: Residual free chlorine. Flow injection analysis. Microdevice. Smartphone. Determination. | Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior

[SPA] Este documento muestra una visión general del estado del arte de la inteligencia artificial aplicada a la agricultura de precisión. Además, describe el plan de trabajo propuesto para conseguir uno de los objetivos relacionados con el manejo eficiente del agua en la agricultura que pretenden ser abordados en la tesis doctoral y muestra algunos de los avances conseguidos hasta ahora. [ENG] This document gives an overview of the state of the art of artificial intelligence applied to precision agriculture. In addition, it describes the proposed work schedule in order to achieve the one of the objectives related to the efficient water management in agriculture that are aimed within this PhD and shows some of the advances that are fulfilled until now. | Este trabajo ha sido financiado por el Ministerio de Investigación e Innovación del Gobierno de España (PCIN-2017-091, WaterWorks2015 ERA-NET) y Manuel Forcen agradece la financiación del contrato predoctoral recibida de la Fundación Séneca (20767/FPI/18).

El plátano, en sus diversas variedades, se cultiva ampliamente en Colombia por ser un recurso de fácil adquisición y bajo costo; gracias a sus concentraciones de almidón y a las características propias coagulantes reportadas por varios autores, así como también a su amplia zona de siembra y producción, que abarca la casi totalidad del territorio, se tomó la cáscara de este vegetal en la variedad Musa AAB Simmonds, que es la más común y comercializada en Colombia, como óptima para la revisión de un posible sustituto o coadyuvante orgánico de los coagulantes tradicionales, en tratamientos de agua, en el territorio colombiano. Se hicieron ensayos de jarras con una solución generada a partir de la cáscara de plátano, siguiendo metodologías de estudios similares; como resultado de estos ensayos se evidenció que en ninguna de las aguas, ni tampoco en ninguna de las concentraciones de coagulante natural a base de cáscara de plátano, se formó floc, eliminando de tajo la hipótesis planteada; sin embargo, al realizar ensayos en aguas con concentraciones de hierro de 200 mg/L, se encontró que la solución a base de cáscara de plátano tiene propiedades bioadsorbentes para la eliminación de hierro (Fe) en soluciones acuosas con pH mayores de 8,0, reduciendo hasta en un 99,99 % la concentración de hierro en el agua, viéndose un mejor comportamiento con la concentración de 90 mg/L de la solución bioabsorbente. | Plantain, in its diverse varieties, is widely cultivated in Colombia; thanks to its starch concentrations and the coagulant characteristics reported by various authors and to its wide area of sowing and production that covers almost the entire territory, which makes this a resource of easy acquisition and low cost. The peel of this vegetable from the Musa AAB Simmonds variety, which is the most common and commercialized in Colombia, was set as optimal for the review of a possible substitute or organic adjuvant of traditional coagulants in water treatments, in the Colombian territory. Jar tests were performed with a solution generated from plantain peel following similar study methodologies; as a result of these tests, it was evidenced that, in none of the waters, with any of the concentrations of natural coagulant based on plantain peel, floc was formed, eliminating the hypothesis raised. However, when carrying out tests in water with iron concentrations of 200 mg / L, it was found that the plantain peel-based solution has bioadsorbent properties, for the elimination of iron (Fe) in aqueous solutions with a pH greater than 8.0, reducing the iron concentration in the water by up to 99.99 %, evidencing a better performance with the concentration of 90 mg / L of the bioabsorbent solution.

The city of Ensenada depends on groundwater, particularly from the Maneadero and Guadalupe aquifer for water supply for agricultural irrigation, urban use, and to support a range of ecosystem functions. Due to intensive extraction, the aquifers' water levels are decreasing and there is water scarcity in the area. Among the solutions implemented by the state of Baja California government is the construction of a desalination plant in Ensenada to meet urban demand, the construction of a new aqueduct to transport water from the Colorado River-Tijuana and the implementation of water reuse for irrigation and aquifer's infiltration. This paper aims to analyze the potential alternatives to mitigate water scarcity in Ensenada region, Baja California, by comparing the costs of water management alternatives and discussing possible solutions. It was found that the use of treated wastewater for irrigation and aquifer's injection could restore aquifers overused at the long term and is more cost-effective from an environmental and economic point of view. Transporting water from Colorado River-Tijuana-aqueduct Ensenada and the construction of a seawater desalination plant are important steps towards provisioning water to Ensenada yet are less desirable due to their environmental impact and the dependency on an already highly impacted watershed.

El presente trabajo busca evaluar la implementación de reactores anaerobios en lugares cuya altitud sea igual o superior a los 2.000 msnm y la temperatura ambiente del lugar no supere los 20°C en Colombia. Para esto la autora menciona los elementos teóricos, bajo una extensa revisión bibliográfica dentro del contexto nacional e internacional, describiendo y comparando las características fisicoquímicas y biológicas de diversos reactores anaerobios de tipo flujo ascendente (RAFA), flujo pistón (RAP), y completamente mezclado (RACM) entre otras unidades anaerobias menos comunes. La metodología aplicada es deductiva, con el fin de proponer así una metodología al dimensionamiento de un tipo de reactor anaerobio capaz de aprovechar materiales altamente energéticos como la biomasa y biogás presentes en el agua residual doméstica. Planteando de esta forma una alternativa a la optimización de los recursos en los sistemas de tratamiento de agua residual doméstica existente en Colombia, basándose en la remoción de contaminantes principalmente coloides (organismos patógenos) y materia orgánica presente e integrados de forma tal a la generación de energía renovable de tipo biomasa, a través de la bioconversión de metano y ácidos volátiles. Lo cual contempla a los reactores anaerobios dentro de un avanzado grupo en el tratamiento del agua residual domésticas, ya que reduce las emisiones atmosféricas y presenta buenos porcentajes de remoción de contaminantes en efluentes con baja saturación de oxígeno, condiciones favorables para este caso de estudio. | The present document seeks to evaluate the implementation of anaerobic reactors in places whose altitude is equal to or greater than 2000m above sea level and the Ambient temperature of the place does not exceed 20 ° C in Colombia. For this the author mentioned the theoretical elements, under an extensive bibliographic review within the national and international context, describing and comparing the physicochemical and biological characteristics of various anaerobic reactors of the upflow type (UASB), plug flow (PRF), and completely mixed. (CSTR) among other less common anaerobic units. The applied methodology is deductive, to propose a methodology for design a type of anaerobic reactor capable of taking advantage of highly energetic materials such as biomass and biogas present in domestic wastewater. Proposing in this way an alternative to the optimization of resources in the existing domestic wastewater treatment systems in Colombia, dependent on the elimination of contaminants, mainly colloids (pathogenic organisms) and organic matter present and integrated in such a way to the generation of biomass-type renewable energy, through the bioconversion of methane and volatile acids. Which considers anaerobic reactors within an advanced group in the treatment of domestic wastewater, since it reduces atmospheric emissions and presents a good percentage of pollutant removal in effluents with low oxygen saturation, favorable conditions for this case study.

Una tecnología de ariete hidráulico se presenta como un proyecto de alta eficiencia desde el enfoque de sostenibilidad en la Finca La Libertad, debido a que su construcción permite la disminución del uso de energía eléctrica y se acopla a procesos en áreas productivas agrícolas con técnicas de permacultura. El objetivo general es implementar el sistema de ariete hidráulico para el manejo eficiente del agua, conduciéndola a un Domo geodésico para el riego de plántulas en invernadero; la fuente de agua es una red de niebla con captación de lluvia horizontal. Desde la metodología se presenta el diseño hidráulico, los insumos y equipos necesarios para la instalación y la conducción del agua y una evaluación de la eficiencia del proceso. El ariete tiene un caudal de descarga de 1.85 litros por segundo, el total de tubería de conducción de alimentación es de 30m lineales y la manguera de descarga tiene una longitud lineal de 65m, el factor de pérdidas de carga por fricción del sistema es de 4,82 m que son compensados por la acción de la gravedad, el diámetro de la tubería es de 2 pulgadas con 5 conectores y accesorios que dan una perdida local en el sistema de 4.88 m compensados también por la acción de la gravedad. Un ariete hidráulico se define como una bomba que funciona a gravedad y su eficiencia teórica es del 65%, la recirculación del agua es aprovechada en la finca aguas abajo. El sistema que se beneficia de la conducción de agua del ariete hasta el domo es un invernadero que tiene una instalación de un riego presurizado de alta frecuencia, tipo nebulización. La principal incidencia del proyecto está en el ahorro y uso eficiente del agua y en la garantía de una armonía sostenible de cada una de las tecnologías que se implementan en la finca La Libertad para convertirse en un centro experimental de una permacultura en contexto de lo rural. Se recomienda que el proyecto se incorpore a una estructura educativo-ambiental que permita visitar la finca La Libertad dentro de un recorrido de turismo de naturaleza. | A hydraulic ram technology is presented as a high-efficiency project from the sustainability approach in the La Libertad farm, because its construction allows the reduction of the use of electrical energy and is coupled to processes in agricultural productive areas with permaculture techniques. The general objective is to implement a hydraulic ram system for efficient water management, leading it to a geodesic dome for the irrigation of seedlings in a greenhouse; the water source is a mist network with horizontal rain catchment. From the methodology, the hydraulic design, the supplies and necessary equipment for the installation and conduction of the water and an evaluation of the efficiency of the process are presented. The ram has a discharge flow rate of 1.85 liters per second, the total supply pipeline is 30 linear meters and the discharge hose has a linear length of 65 meters, also the friction loss factor of the system is 4,82 m that are compensated by gravity action, the diameter of the pipe is 2 inches with 5 connectors and 5 accessories that give a local loss of 4,88m in the system, whicha are also compensated by gravity action. A hydraulic ram is defined as a pump that works by gravity and its theoretical efficiency is about 65% and wáter recirculation is used in the farm, downstream. The system that benefits from the conduction of water from the ram to the dome is a greenhouse that has an installation of pressurized high frequency irrigation, mist type. The project’s main incidence is water’s saving and it’s efficient use and as well as in the guarantee of a sustainable harmony of each one of the technologies that are implemented in the La Libertad farm to become a permaculture experimental center in a rural context. It is recommended that the Project gets to be incorporated into an educational-environmental structure that allows to visit the La Libertad farm within a nature tourism tour

A presente tese utilizou abordagens multidisciplinares com o objetivo de reconstruir hipóteses filogenéticas para Oligosarcus e seus parasitos de brânquia, Characithecium, e estimar a provável história coevolutiva entre esses organismos. Para tal, primeiramente, o Capítulo I focou nas relações filogenéticas entre espécies de Oligosarcus, realizando uma estimativa de tempo de divergência para o gênero, bem como uma reconstrução ancestral de área. Oligosarcus é um grupo de peixes da família Characidae composto por 22 espécies, as quais possuem, principalmente, distribuíção alopátricas na região sudeste da América do Sul, e possuem ocorrência simpátrica para poucas espécies. Este gênero de peixe foi recuperado como monofilético, com alto suporte, e relacionado a linhagens atualmente atribuídas ao gênero Astyanax. Dentro de Oligosarcus, dois grupos com riqueza de espécies aproximadamente iguais são restritos principalmente às drenagens continentais e costeiras do sudeste da América do Sul. A radiação do gênero foi estimada para o Plioceno, com a maioria dos eventos de especiação ocorrendo durante o Pleistoceno. Estimativas da área ancestral utilizando métodos analíticos e modelos de evolução da paisagem (por exemplo, DIVALIKE e DEC) indicam a importância de barreiras fluviais (ex, as cataratas do Iguaçu) na bacia hidrográfica do rio da Prata e os efeitos das mudanças no nível do mar durante o Pleistoceno como moduladores de distribuições das espécies de Oligosarcus. Posteriormente, foi realizado no Capítulo II uma extensa investigação sobre a diversidade parasitária em brânquias de 17 espécies de Oligosarcus, bem como de 15 espécies de Astyanax, as quais são filogeneticamente próximas à Oligosarcus e com ocorrência simpátrica em muitos casos. Foram identificadas 7 espécies de Characithecium, sendo estas específicas de brânquias de Oligosarcus e Astyanax, e sendo recuperadas como monofiléticas a partir de dados moleculares. Além disso, foram investigadas se algumas características ecológicas estariam associadas a diferentes taxas de prevalências observadas para cada espécie de parasito em seus respectivos hospedeiros, e como diferentes caracteres morfológicos teriam evoluído dentro do gênero Characithecium. Após possuir esse conhecimento sobre as relações filogenéticas dos peixes (hospedeiros) e dos parasitos, e de identificar as associações entre esses indivíduos, essa tese finaliza com um estudo detalhado sobre a estrutura das interações entre parasitos e hospedeiros e a história coevolutiva dessas associações, bem como realiza uma estimativa de área ancestral para ambos os táxons. A partir de um estudo multidisciplinar, recuperamos a importância da oportunidade de contato entre os hospedeiros como mecanismo modulador da interação parasito-hospedeiro e o quanto isso demonstrou afetar a estruturação dessas redes. Em links com mais oportunidades de dispersão (= em bacias costeiras), a estrutura da rede era menos especializada do que nos links com poucas oportunidades de dispersão (= em bacias continentais). Além disso, devido a essa oportunidade, análises de ajuste global recuperaram várias expansões no número de hospedeiros utilizados como principais eventos coevolutivos que explicam a associação do Characithecium com seus X 10 hospedeiros. Por fim, análises de reconstrução ancestral de área recuperaram dois cenários evolutivos para os parasitos. Em um deles utilizamos a informação de área ancestral dos hospedeiros (Oligosarcus e Astyanax) para restringir a área ancestral dos parasitos. Esse cenário recuperou a região costeira sul como área ancestral para Characithecium, e diversas dispersões posteriores a partir de 10 Ma. Por outro lado, um outro cenário, o qual foi realizado sem informações a priori sobre a distribuição dos hospedeiros, recuperou uma ampla área ancestral para Characithecium, indicando que esses parasitos provavelmente eram associados a outras espécies de peixes no início de sua radiação, as quais possuíam ampla dispersão. Nesse cenário, a associação com Oligosarcus e Astyanax teria ocorrido posteriormente a partir de novas colonizações e consequente extinção nos hospedeiros ancestrais. | This thesis used multidisciplinary approaches in order to reconstruct phylogenetic hypotheses for Oligosarcus and Astyanax, and their gill parasites, Characithecium, and to estimate the probable coevolutionary history between these organisms. First, Chapter I focused on the phylogenetic relationships between species of Oligosarcus, making an estimate of the divergence time for the genus, as well as an ancestral area reconstruction. Oligosarcus is a group of Characidae composed of 22 species, which have mainly allopatric distribution in the southeastern region of South America and have a sympatric occurrence for a few species. This fish genus was recovered as monophyletic, with high node support, and related to lineage currently attributed to the Astyanax genus. Within Oligosarcus, two groups with approximately equal species richness were resolved as monophyletic, restricted mainly to continental and coastal drainages in southeastern South America. The radiation of the genus was estimated for the Pliocene, with most speciation events occurring during the Pleistocene. Estimates of the ancestral area using analytical methods (e.g., DIVALIKE and DEC) indicate the importance of river barriers (e.g., Iguaçu waterfalls) in the La Prata basin and the effects of sea-level changes during the Pleistocene for the distributions of the Oligosarcus lineage. Subsequently, an extensive investigation was carried out in Chapter II on the parasitic diversity in gills of 17 species of Oligosarcus, as well as 15 species of Astyanax, which are phylogenetically close to Oligosarcus and with sympatric occurrence to some species of that genus. Seven species of Characithecium were identified, these being specific to gills of Oligosarcus and Astyanax, and being recovered as monophyletic from molecular data. In addition, it was investigated whether some ecological characteristics would be associated with different prevalence rates observed for each parasite species in their respective hosts, and how different morphological characters would have evolved within Characithecium. After having knowledge about the phylogenetic relationships of fish (hosts) and parasites, and identifying the associations between these individuals, this thesis presents a detailed study on the structure of interactions between parasites and hosts and the coevolutionary history of these associations, as well how to estimate ancestral area for both taxa. From a multidisciplinary study, we recovered the importance of the opportunity for contact between hosts as a modulator mechanism of the host-parasite interaction and how much this has been shown to affect the structuring of these networks. In links with more opportunities for dispersion (= coastal links), the network structure was less specialized than in links with few opportunities for dispersion (= continental links). In addition, due to this opportunity, global-fit analyses recovered several host-range expansions as main coevolutionary events that explain the association of Characithecium with its hosts. Finally, analyzes of ancestral area reconstruction recovered two evolutionary scenarios for the parasites. In one of them, we used the ancestral area information of the hosts (Oligosarcus and Astyanax) to restrict the ancestral area of the parasites. This scenario recovered the XII 12 southern coastal region as an ancestral area for Characithecium, and several dispersals after 10 Ma. On the other hand, another scenario, which was carried out without prior information on the distribution of the hosts, recovered a wide ancestral area for Characithecium, indicating that these parasites were probably associated with other fish species at the beginning of their radiation, which had wide dispersion. In this scenario, the association with Oligosarcus and Astyanax would have occurred later on from new colonizations and consequent extinction in the ancestral hosts.