The research relevance is determined by the decline of bee populations in Albania, as the need to understand the dynamics of colony loss and the factors contributing to it is of paramount importance. The study aimed to comprehensively investigate the prevalence and main causes of colony losses, with special attention to Varroa mite infestation, Nosema disease, viral pathogens, pesticides, and bacterial infections. Using the stratified sampling method, 15,493 beekeepers of different ages and experiences participated in the study. Both electronic and face-to-face surveys were used to collect data on bee family losses, management practices and environmental factors affecting bee health. In addition, monitoring programmes allowed a detailed assessment of bee family health and environmental conditions in the apiary, providing valuable information on temporal trends and patterns. The findings indicate alarming rates of Varroa mite infestation, prevalence of Nosema and a complex interplay of factors contributing to colony loss, particularly during the summer and winter months. For example, Varroa mite infestation was found in 61% of the 29,474 bee samples collected during summer sampling, with rates ranging from 0.5% to 70.2%. Similarly, during autumn sampling, 65% of 43,037 bee samples contained Varroa mites, with an average infestation rate of 5.3%. Moreover, Nosema disease is also a complex problem, with clinical prevalence ranging from 0.1% in autumn to 1.3% in summer and spring. These key figures highlight the urgent need to develop effective strategies to reduce Varroa mite infestation and Nosema disease, thereby maintaining bee populations and ecosystem health. The results of the study make a valuable contribution to bee management and policy development, emphasising the importance of holistic approaches to maintaining bee health and resilience in Albania

The effects of management, such as intensive migratory beekeeping, are of ongoing debate concerning the causes of honey bee health problems. Even though comparisons of disease among differently managed colonies indicate some effects, the direct impact of migratory practices on honey bee diseases are not well understood. To test the long- and short-term impact of managed migration on disease loads and immunity, experimental honey bee colonies were maintained with or without migratory movement and individuals that experienced migration as juveniles (e.g., larval and pupal development), as adults, or both were compared to control colonies that remained stationary and therefore did not experience migratory relocation. Samples at different ages and life history stages (hive bees or foragers), taken at the beginning and end of the active season, were analyzed for pathogen loads and physiological markers associated with health or stress. Bees exposed to migratory management during adulthood had increased levels of the AKI virus complex (Acute bee paralysis, Kashmir bee, and Israeli acute bee paralysis viruses) and decreased levels of antiviral gene expression (dicer-like, hsp90). However, those in stationary management as adults had elevated gut parasites (Nosema and trypanosomes). Effects of environment during juvenile development were more complex and interacted with life-history stage and season. Age at collection, life-history stage, and season all influenced numerous factors from viral load to immune gene expression. Overall, these data shed light on the complexity of how management practices can influence individual bee exposure to pathogens, health, and resiliency.

The Apimondia working group on honey bee diversity and fitness (AWG 7) was created on October 25, 2010 as a Scientific Working Group of Apimondia. The aim of this AWG is to collect information on honey bee queen rearing practices, and examine their impact on the genetic variability and general health of honey bee colonies. The AWG consists of 23 members from 16 different countries. The world wide survey being conducted by this AWG is focused on gathering information on how selection methods, instrumental insemination, disease management procedures, introduction of exotic bee lines, queen replacement strategies, and loss of local colony populations due to introduced parasites and pathogens, affect the ability of our bees to survive and reproduce. The information collected will contribute on an international level to our understanding of how apiculture practices affect honey bee genetics, health and productivity.

Abstract Background Honey bees and honeycomb bees are very valuable for wild flowering plants and economically important crops due to their role as pollinators. However, these insects confront many disease threats (viruses, parasites, bacteria and fungi) and large pesticide concentrations in the environment. Varroa destructor is the most prevalent disease that has had the most negative effects on the fitness and survival of different honey bees (Apis mellifera and A. cerana). Moreover, honey bees are social insects and this ectoparasite can be easily transmitted within and across bee colonies. Objective This review aims to provide a survey of the diversity and distribution of important bee infections and possible management and treatment options, so that honey bee colony health can be maintained. Methods We used PRISMA guidelines throughout article selection, published between January 1960 and December 2020. PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, Cochrane Library, Web of Science and Ovid databases were searched. Results We have collected 132 articles and retained 106 articles for this study. The data obtained revealed that V. destructor and Nosema spp. were found to be the major pathogens of honey bees worldwide. The impact of these infections can result in the incapacity of forager bees to fly, disorientation, paralysis, and death of many individuals in the colony. We find that both hygienic and chemical pest management strategies must be implemented to prevent, reduce the parasite loads and transmission of pathogens. The use of an effective miticide (fluvalinate‐tau, coumaphos and amitraz) now seems to be an essential and common practice required to minimise the impact of Varroa mites and other pathogens on bee colonies. New, alternative biofriendly control methods, are on the rise, and could be critical for maintaining honey bee hive health and improving honey productivity. Conclusions We suggest that critical health control methods be adopted globally and that an international monitoring system be implemented to determine honey bee colony safety, regularly identify parasite prevalence, as well as potential risk factors, so that the impact of pathogens on bee health can be recognised and quantified on a global scale.

Microbes, including bacteria and viruses, are the main threats to the health of honey bee colonies, and cause great losses to beekeepers. Rapid and accurate diagnosis is the key to controlling and eliminating honey bee diseases, and preventing them from spreading and causing an outbreak. This review summarizes recent advances in techniques to detect honey bee diseases, including traditional methods such as polymerase chain reaction, and nextgeneration sequencing methods, and how they are applied in the diagnosis and management of such diseases. It also discusses how these methods have revolutionized disease detection, and presents the future directions in the field of clinical diagnostics.

Honey bees are attacked by numerous parasites and pathogens toward which they present a variety of individual and group-level defenses. In this review, we briefly introduce the many pathogens and parasites afflicting honey bees, highlighting the biology of specific taxonomic groups mainly as they relate to virulence and possible defenses. Second, we describe physiological, immunological, and behavioral responses of individual bees toward pathogens and parasites. Third, bees also show behavioral mechanisms for reducing the disease risk of their nestmates. Accordingly, we discuss the dynamics of hygienic behavior and other group-level behaviors that can limit disease. Finally, we conclude with several avenues of research that seem especially promising for understanding host–parasite relationships in bees and for developing breeding or management strategies for enhancing honey bee health. We discuss how human efforts to maintain healthy colonies intersect with similar efforts by the bees, and how bee management and breeding protocols can affect disease traits in the short and long term.

International audience | The parasitic mite, Varroa destructor, has shaken the beekeeping and pollination industries since its spread from its native host, the Asian honey bee (Apis cerana), to the naïve European honey bee (Apis mellifera) used commercially for pollination and honey production around the globe. Varroa is the greatest threat to honey bee health. Worrying observations include increasing acaricide resistance in the varroa population and sinking economic treatment thresholds,suggesting that the mites or their vectored viruses are becoming more virulent. Highly infested weak colonies facilitate mite dispersal and disease transmission to stronger and healthier colonies. Here, we review recent developments in thebiology, pathology, and management of varroa, and integrate older knowledge that is less well known.

European Foulbrood (EFB) is a severe bacterial disease affecting honeybees, primarily caused by the Gram-positive bacterium Melissococcus plutonius. Although the presence of M. plutonius is associated with EFB, it does not consistently predict the manifestation of symptoms, and the role of ‘secondary invaders’ in the disease’s development remains a subject of ongoing debate. This review provides an updated synthesis of the microbial ecological factors that influence the expression of EFB symptoms, which have often been overlooked in previous research. In addition, this review examines the potential negative health consequences of prolonged antibiotic use in bee colonies for treating EFB, and proposes innovative and sustainable alternatives. These include the development of probiotics and targeted microbiota management techniques, aiming to enhance the overall resilience of bee populations to this debilitating disease.

Managed and wild bee populations contribute over $15 billion in pollination services to US agriculture, yet both are declining or becoming increasingly vulnerable to parasites and disease. The loss of healthy and diverse forage is a key driver in bee declines, so incentivizing land managers to adopt diversified bee-friendly management practices such as forage plantings and reduced pesticide use can directly increase food security, pollinator health, and farmer adaptive capacity. To better understand what might incentivize growers to adopt bee-friendly practices, we conducted a survey of California almond growers, whose orchards are entirely dependent on bee pollination and draw nearly 88% of US bee colonies each February to pollinate almond bloom. We asked 329 respondents across all major almond growing regions of CA about their adoption rate and incentives for planting cover crops, pollinator habitat, and practicing the recommended and legally required bee-friendly best management practices, as well as their interest in bee-friendly certification programs. Using a model selection framework, we evaluated which geographic, social, operational, and pollination-service related factors were predictive of bee-friendly practice adoption. We found that no single factor was a statistically significant predictor of adoption across all models, suggesting there is no silver bullet determining bee-friendly practice adoption. However, we discovered that region and concerns about future pollination services consistently emerged as important factors related to all the practices we investigated, except the adoption of legally required BMPs. These findings suggest that a regionally flexible pollinator conservation strategy focused on supporting honey bee colonies might have the highest likelihood of grower participation and adoption.